Ukraine

Ukraine

Since 1991, Ukraine has been an independent state, the sovereignty of which is now recognized by all the countries of the world. Ukraine is one of the biggest European states (603,700 square kilometers). Ukraine has common borders with seven countries (Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Moldova, Russia, and Byelorussia), and the Black and Azov Seas are on its southern border.

Ukraine consists of 24 regions (oblast) and the Crimea Autonomous Republic. The capital of Ukraine is Kiev. A Pan-Ukrainian population census in 2001 found the total number of inhabitants at 48,416,000. The majority are city inhabitants, and 32 percent live in the countryside.

Over 100 ethnicities and nationalities are represented in contemporary Ukraine. Among them are Ukrainians, Russians, Belorussians, Moldavians, Crimean Tatars, and Bulgarians. Most of the population of Ukraine belongs to the Orthodox Christian Church.


Striving for national and state independence was a key issue in Ukraine in the 20th century. This aspiration, partly realized during the hard days of 1917–20, remained potent political motivation for Ukrainians living all over the world. The democracy brought by Mikhail Gorbachev’s perestroika inspired ethnic minorities in the Soviet Union to activate national liberation movements.

Revision of the Ukrainian nation historical past, promoted by representatives of the Ukrainian Helsinki Group of human rights activists; a rise in national identity supported and developed by artists, poets, writers, and scientists; and the people’s movement known as "meeting democracy" had created the necessary background for historical action. On July 16, 1990, the Verkhovna Rada (Parliament) of Ukraine, first among the republics of the former Soviet Union, adopted a declaration of state sovereignty of Ukraine.

Ukraine map

The next step was a coup that took place in the Soviet Union on August 19–21, 1994, and that resulted in the pronouncement of the Act of State Independence of Ukraine by Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine. Soon afterward the first elections were held for president of independent Ukraine (Leonid Kravchuk won and was president from 1991 to 1994), combined with an all Ukrainian referendum for endorsement of the independence of Ukraine.

Since that time a series of measures aimed at the organization of bodies and institutions necessary for an independent Ukraine have been undertaken. Some acts were compromises with the Russian Federation; because of the deep economic integration of both countries, it was hard to become separated at once.

Issues included the state border between Ukraine and Russia in the Azov Sea; the presence of the Russian navy in Sevastopol in Crimea and the status of that city; and the persoalan of the frontier with Romania around Zmeinyi Island. Some others still remain only partially solved.

On December 7–8, 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine, and Belorussia signed a document denouncing the union treaty of 1922, according to which the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics had been organized. A treaty establishing a Commonwealth of Independent States was signed instead. Since that time, Ukraine has been free to conduct its internal policy.

During 1991–94 a series of democratic reforms were instituted in Ukraine, among which the most important were beginning a constitutional process, the improvement of the multiparty system, the formulation of basic principles of foreign policy and international cooperation, the formulation of a military doctrine, introduction of economic reforms, the elaboration of an ethnic policy, and the creation of relationships with the different churches represented in Ukraine.

The presidential and parliamentary elections of 1994 opened a new phase in the political development of Ukraine. The keystone of the political history of Ukraine at that time was the adoption of a new constitution (June 28, 1996), a long and hard process that repeatedly caused political and parliamentary criss.

It was the beginning of parliamentary and presidential opposition, which led to growing tension during Kuchma’s presidency in relation to the composition of parliament factions and their representation.

The presidential elections of 2004 and the following Orange Revolution opened a new masa in the political history of Ukraine, characterized by general democratization and liberalization of the political process.

Ukrainians dissatisfied with officially announced results of the runoff election between presidential candidate Viktor Yanukovich and leader of the opposition Viktor Yuschenko demonstrated in the principal square of Kiev—the Maidan (Square) of Independence—and for several weeks people from various cities, towns, and villages in Ukraine marched for democracy, for their political rights, and for the possibility to make their political choices freely.

Orange Revolution

Orange Revolution

Representatives of different political parties and movements united their efforts in this process, and the Orange Revolution ended in a victory for democracy in Ukraine. A coalition government, with the participation of all "orange" parties and movements, was formed, with Julia Timoshenko as the first woman prime minister in the history of Ukraine.

In local administrations, thousands of former functionaries of different levels have been replaced by "orange" democrats. New priorities in foreign policy, a tendency toward integration with the European Union (EU) and cooperation with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and reorientation of trade relationships have been elaborated.

Nevertheless, as early as the beginning of September 2005, Julia Timoshenko’s government was dismissed, and it became clear that there were serious discrepancies among Orange Revolution leaders and representatives of different orange parties.

Political reform that implies the transition of Ukraine from presidential to parliamentary republic was adopted by the parliament and became a point of serious discussion among "orange" revolutionaries, social democrats, representatives of the Party of Regions, and communists. The ideals of democracy and freedom still remain the essence of the Viktor Yuschenko presidency, as was shown by the first free parliamentary election in March 2006.

Viktor Yuschenko

Shortly after its independence, Ukraine faced problems during the transitional period of economic development from planned socialism to free-market forms. The destruction of traditional Soviet resources, marketing, and energetic and macroeconomic networks, along with the extreme difficulty of creating new ones in the European community, and the urgent need for modernization of basic equipment and production techniques, negatively influenced the general state and the prospects of further development of the economy of Ukraine. A so-called shadow economy sprang up and grew rapidly with substantial support from the highest administration of Ukraine, which appeared to be corrupt.

Inflation, accompanied by a decrease in purchasing power, indicated that the standard of living of Ukrainians decreased to a crucial level, creating a need for the state administration to finance a series of social programs. Pension reform, changes in support for families with low income, support for veterans of World War II, and many other social actions were undertaken.

Broad-scale raising of salaries, stipends, and pensions began in 2004 under the government headed by Viktor Yanukovich on the eve of presidential elections. The new president of Ukraine, Viktor Yuschenko, and his ministries consequently instituted a series of social programs aimed at improving the standard of living.

A series of economic reforms, including the introduction of new currency, privatization in agriculture and industry, promotion of national producers and national product exportation, searches for new investments and new sources of power supply abroad, and cooperation with the World Bank, gradually contributed to a general slow growth of the Ukrainian economy after 2000.

The creation of a new macroeconomic network, tending toward integration with the European Union (EU) and the World Trade Organization (WTO), is the principal strategic goal proclaimed by President Yuschenko.

The organization of an independent state of Ukraine led to a new animo in the development of the ideology and culture of the country, connected with the formation of the ideas of national unity and ethnic and national self-identification.

The process of national memory revival, studies of the cultural and historical past of the Ukrainian nation, rediscovering cultural heritage, the revival of the folk culture of national minorities, and the establishment of fruitful connections with the Ukrainian diaspora are key aspects of the cultural development of Ukraine in the new millenium.

One of the sharpest debates in the context of cultural development is the discussion of an official language of Ukraine. It was demonstrated in the presidential election of 2004 and the parliamentary election of 2006 that a strong Russian-speaking opposition still exists in Ukraine.

The activation of religious life in independent Ukraine after the dismantling of a totalitarian ideology brought a series of conflicts, first of all among representatives of different branches of Orthodox Christianity. As stated by the constitution of Ukraine, the nonobligatory character of any religion creates the background necessary for religious pluralism and freedom of people’s consciousness.

Turkey

Turkey flag

Present-day Turkey lies in southeastern Europe and southwestern Asia and shares borders with Greece, Bulgaria, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, Iraq, and Syria. It is made up of 780,580 square kilometers. It contains the Bosporus Strait, which connects, the Black and Marmara seas, and is one of the busiest shipping lanes, in the world. Turkey also has coastline on the Aegean and Mediterranean seas.

Turkey has 81 provinces, and Ankara is the capital city. Turkey’s population is almost 70 million, of which a majority are Turkish, with a significant minority of Kurds, as well as Armenians, Greeks, Jews, Circassians, Assyrians, Arabs, and Laz communities. Turkey is overwhelmingly Muslim.

Turkey is a republican parliamentary democracy with a civil law system derived from several European legal systems such as the Swiss Code. The legislative branch is the unicameral Grand National Assembly, which contains 550 popularly elected seats.


Turkey’s economy is a mix of industrial, agricultural, and commercial. The private sector is expanding, but the state still controls most basic industries and the banking, transport, and communication sectors. The main export industries are textile and clothing production, with automotive and electronic export production close behind.

The main agricultural products include tobacco, cotton, grains, olives, sugar beets, pulses, citrus products, and livestock. In the 1990s Turkey’s economy suffered severe fluctuations, which culminated in financial disaster in February 2001. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) provides heavy backing, but the economy faces high debt and deficits.

Ismet Inönü took over as president upon the death of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1938, and the Republican People’s Party (RPP) held the majority until 1950. Inönü managed to stay out of World War II until 1945, when Turkey declared war on Germany as a symbolic gesture in order to qualify as a founder of the newly forming United Nations. Under the Truman Doctrine, Turkey, due to its close proximity to the Soviet Union, qualified for massive financial aid.

Despite these achievements, the economy was weak, and the RPP and Inönü grew increasingly unpopular. Turkey had by then formed a multiparty system, and in 1950 the Democratic Party (Demokrati Partisi, or DP) received the majority in the elections, forcing the RPP to relinquish its 27-year majority.

Turkey map

Celal Bayar became president, and Adnan Menderes became prime minister. The economic boom of the early 1950s strengthened Menderes and the DP’s position. By 1952 Turkey had become a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), largely due to the fact that Turkey had immediately volunteered troops for the Korean War. Turkey’s entry into NATO ensured protection along its borders and allowed NATO a closer position against the USSR.

After the 1954 elections the DP became more authoritarian. Conflict was exacerbated when a Greek citizen placed a bomb at the Turkish consulate in Thessalonica. The island of Cyprus, under British control and with an 80 percent Greek majority, also became a point of conflict. These two issues culminated in riots in 1955 that targeted Greek homes, shops, and businesses and wrought havoc throughout Istanbul.

Many Turkish citizens of Greek origin fled Turkey after these riots. During this period, Greek nationalists of the EOKA movement on Cyprus also began a struggle against the British forces. Turkey strongly opposed British suggestions that the Greeks might be allowed to annex Cyprus. Ultimately Cyprus became an independent nation.

Turkey prime minister in 1950s, Adnan Menderes

The DP lacked the support of the military, which had been vital to the RPP. This led to the DP’s downfall in 1960. Because of training, aid, and financial support gained as a result of joining NATO, the Turkish military was a strong and powerful mechanism within Turkey. Menderes grew increasingly unpopular with the military.

In 1960, the military overthrew the Menderes government. The coup was popular among students, who had been repressed by the DP. A new constitution was drawn up that justified military intervention if the ruling government acted unconstitutionally. The military was also given a role in government.

In January 1961 political activity was allowed once again, and 11 parties registered for the elections to be held at the end of 1961. One of the parties, the Justice Party (Adalet Partisi, or JP) appeared to be a phoenix of the old, outlawed DP. Menderes and two of his cabinet members were tried by a military tribunal and executed in September 1961. Elections were held in October 1961.

Süleyman Demirel

The Justice and Republican People’s Parties formed a shaky coalition. In 1965 the JP, led by Süleyman Demirel, won a major victory in elections. Under Demirel, Turkey saw significant economic growth. The JP espoused Islamist and traditional beliefs that ran directly counter to communist and leftist thought. The left grew increasingly popular among the student population and industrial proletariat.

The right also emerged as a strong force in the 1960s, setting the stage for the crisis of the 1970s. The formation of two strong, Islamic-leaning parties, the National Action Party (Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi) and the National Order Party (Millî Nizam Partisi), seriously threatened the JP’s hold on the government in 1969.

Demirel’s JP government started to fall apart in 1971. On March 12, 1971, the army forced the Demirel government from office.

Free elections were held in 1973, with a victory by Bülent Ecevit’s RPP. However, because they failed to capture the majority vote, they were forced into coalition governments. This continued throughout the 1970s as rightist and leftist violence escalated. Kurdish separatism also flared up in the 1970s. Kurdish nationalist Abdullah Öcalan formed the left-leaning Kurdistan Worker’s Party (PKK) in 1978.

The sectarian violence escalated, and the military stepped in. After the Iranian revolution in 1979, Islamic groups in Turkey were suspected of receiving aid from Iran. The religious demonstrations in Konya in September 1980 provided an excuse for direct military intervention.

The Purge

Kenan Evren : president of turkey 1980-1989

The military suspended all political parties and groups and instituted martial law and curfews. General Kenan Evren was declared acting head of state. The National Security Council (NSC) arrested 122,000 people during 1980–81 in order to stop the violence. Academics and politicians were purged from the system. A new constitution was enacted in 1982. Kenan Evren was then elected president, and the military began to restructure the political system.

Elections were held in 1983, with the Motherland Party (Anavatan Partisi) gaining the majority under Turgut Özal. The old parties then reincarnated and changed their names in order to enter the 1984 elections. After Kenan Evren’s term ended in 1989, Turgut Özal became president. Turgut Özal’s presidency, although fraught with corruption and scandal, was also marked by impressive modernization.

Turgut Özal : President of Turkey 1989-1993

The 1990s were also marked by the rise of the PKK. After the 1980 coup the Kurdish language was forbidden, as was the term Kurdish as a separate identity. Abdullah Öcalan had fled to Damascus after the 1980 coup. Turkey until 1991 refused to acknowledge the presence of Kurds in the country and referred to them as "mountain Turks". The government forbade their language, songs, customs, and names.

Öcalan’s followers carried out their missions with an almost religious zeal. Talabani of the Kurdish PUK faction based in Iran helped Öcalan get financial support from Kurds living throughout the Middle East, which brought the PKK beyond the sphere of Turkey. The PKK also received support from Kurds living in Europe.

The PKK used guerrilla warfare to launch attacks within Turkey. The Turkish army responded brutally to the terrorist attacks. Villages thought to be harboring PKK terrorists were destroyed, and thousands were arrested, detained, and tortured. Many innocent people were killed and their homes destroyed.

After the U.S. defeat of Iraq in 1991, Turkey feared the creation of a Kurdish state in northern Iraq that would be used as a base for Kurdish attacks on Turkey. Subsequently, President Özal officially recognized the existence of Kurds in Turkey and implemented a bill that would allow the Kurdish language to be used in everyday conversations but not in business, government, or any other official agency.

Despite this, the PKK stepped up their campaigns against the Turkish government, committing more atrocities, which further enraged the Turkish public. Öcalan was captured in Nairobi, Kenya, by Turkish commandos in 1999. He was sentenced to death and imprisoned on an island in the Marmara Sea, where he remained for years.

Tansu çiller : first female prime minister of Turkey 1993-1996

In 1993 the True Path Party came into power, and Tansu çiller became the first female prime minister of Turkey. Necmettin Erbakan was the leader of Refah, which was supported by the young, professional middle class and students. Erbakan did not engage in a radical Islamic changeover.

He personally championed reforms to change the working hours during bulan pahala and loosen control of the Directorate of Religious Affairs to make it harder for the government to monitor Islam. Erbakan also proposed lifting the ban against wearing headscarves in universities and government institutions. The Erbakan/çiller coalition also made significant overtures to Libya and Iran, and at the same time condemned Israel.

With the advent of new freedoms under Erbakan, many other Islamic leaders eagerly expressed their long-silent opinions. Refah wanted to abolish the Swiss legal code instituted by Atatürk, and secularists feared a return to sharia, or Islamic law.

Recep Tayyip Erdogan : Prime minister of Turkey 2003-2014,
Present days president of Turkey

Erbakan and çiller both left government, and in 1998 the Constitutional Court formally disbanded Refah and forced its members out of Parliament. Bülent Ecevit emerged as the new president, in large part because of his handling of Öcalan and the Kurdish conflict. In 1999 a huge earthquake struck Izmit, near Istanbul, killing between 15,000 and 40,000 people.

The government was extremely slow to respond, and the public was enraged by the lack of support from both the government and the military. Memories of the earthquake played a role the emergence of the Justice and Development Party (JDP, or Ak Partisi). In the 2002 elections the JDP, led by Recep Tayyip Erdogan, won a majority in the Grand National Assembly.

Although the JDP espoused a moderate Islamic line, it was careful to respect the secular state. Erdogan also instituted reforms to help pull Turkey out of its financial troubles. Erdogan and the JDP also scored a major victory with the October 2005 decision by the European Union (EU) to start Turkey’s EU membership bid.

Present days Istanbul, Turkey

Father Charles Coughlin

Father Charles Coughlin

Charles E. Coughlin (1891–1979), a Catholic priest in addition to extraordinarily pop radio personality, contributed significantly to nationalist antisemitism inwards the US before World War II. Coughlin asserted that covert Jewish economical interests had led straight to the Great Depression, Franklin D. Roosevelt’s presidency, in addition to World War II. Coughlin believed the same forces were responsible for afterwards silencing him.

Coughlin’s exercise of the radio inwards these accusations has won him notoriety every bit the inventor of “hate radio” (Warren). Coughlin’s exercise of radio broadcast his antisemitism to an audience far broader than enjoyed past times before demagogues. Long after his popularity passed, Coughlin’s theories nigh the “international Jewish banking conspiracy” continued to thrive alongside U.S. right-wing movements.

Charles Edward was born inwards Hamilton, Ontario, on 22 Oct 1891, an alone minor fry to devoutly Catholic parents. The church building in addition to his woman parent dominated immature Charles’s life. Ordained inwards 1916, Coughlin joined the Basilian religious fellowship in addition to performed measure clerical duties inwards Catholic parishes inwards southern Ontario. In 1923 Coughlin left the Basilians in addition to moved to suburban Detroit.


Radio Career in addition to Politics

In 1926 Coughlin received an appointment to a lackluster parish inwards Royal Oak, Michigan, a minor suburb due north of Detroit. The parish suffered from depression membership, inadequate facilities, in addition to Ku Klux Klan harassment. Through the attention of a parishioner, Coughlin began The Little Flower radio programme (named after the parish’s patron saint, St. Therese of Liesieux) to heighten funds. Coughlin’s histrionic speaking abilities speedily generated interest, in addition to the present expanded inwards radio markets to a greater extent than or less the Midwest. Within a yr Coughlin broadcast his shows nationwide.

Coughlin’s early on broadcasts featured an ironic spirit. As his popularity grew, Coughlin began exploring the roots of social ills such every bit anti-Catholic bigotry. Mail streamed into the Royal Oak parish, causing Coughlin to hire additional secretaries to handle it. During the Great Depression economical issues appeared inwards each weekly broadcast.

Coughlin excoriated delineate organisation interests for haemorrhage the working aeroplane of its of savings in addition to his popularity consequently soared. The US was a Christian nation, Coughlin claimed, in addition to Americans had for sure rights granted past times God in addition to the Constitution, such every bit personal autonomy, individual property, in addition to the correct to work.

Anything threatening these rights was non alone unpatriotic but likewise quite demonic. In the early on 1930s Coughlin created Social Justice, a publication containing his broadcasts in addition to other articles sympathetic to Catholic social reform, to farther spread his message (Brinkley; Warren).

During the 1932 election Coughlin proclaimed Franklin D. Roosevelt was the alone candidate possessing the skills needed to resuscitate the nation. Coughlin fancied himself every bit i of FDR’s champaign representatives. The to a greater extent than Coughlin pushed for a federal administrative role, though, the to a greater extent than the Roosevelt direction rebuffed him. During 1934, Coughlin’s broadcasts shifted speedily from praising to critizing Roosevelt in addition to the New Deal.

Coughlin claimed that Roosevelt’s large delineate organisation connections threatened the really roots of instance democracy. By encouraging his radio audience to write congressional members, Coughlin secured the defeat of Roosevelt’s 1935 endeavor to bring together the World Court every bit good every bit the 1938 federal reorganization bill.

Gerald L. K. Smith, an evangelical government minister in addition to i of Huey Long’s organizers inwards Lousiana, convinced Coughlin to unite his immense radio next in addition to populist programme with Francis Townsend’s nationwide pension projection for elderly Americans. Coughlin in addition to Smith created the National Union Party (NUP) to organize their supporters into a tertiary political party.

Speculation suggested that the NUP possessed ample mightiness to challenge the Roosevelt juggernaut inwards 1936. As a priest, Coughlin could non run for office, thus he in addition to Smith chose North Dakota congressman William Lemke instead. However, back upwards speedily eroded, Roosevelt swept to victory, in addition to Coughlin in addition to Smith parted ways acrimoniously (Jeansonne; Warren).

The National Union for Social Justice, which Coughlin had founded inwards 1934, continued to pursue a Catholic approach to the nation’s social in addition to economical reform. Coughlin maintained singular command over the National Union’s agenda thus that it expressed thoroughly Catholic interpretations of populist solutions.

Antisemitism in addition to Catholicism

U.S. Catholicism’s unreconciled message of U.S. materialism in addition to suffering Christianity hastened Coughlin’s descent to bring together Smith inwards antisemitic demagoguery. Coughlin praised Adolf Hitler’s Nazi regime for its success inwards limiting Jewish influence on High German national interests.

Although his popularity shrank during the belatedly 1930s, fifty-fifty after Germany’s Kristallnacht Coughlin nonetheless enjoyed millions of supporters. Much of Coughlin’s pop back upwards came from Catholics who felt the priest was their alone advocate inside the church. He was the i priest willing to criticize the bishops for their extragavant lifestyles.

Coughlin’s Irish Gaelic heritage provided the intellectual framework for his antisemitism. The writings of Dennis Fahey, a priest who taught Catholic philosophy in addition to social idea inwards Dublin, blamed social in addition to economical upheavals on Jewish conspiracy.

Besides killing Jesus Christ, Fahey argued, Jews were responsible for the Protestant Reformation, the French Revolution, industrialization’s social problems, in addition to the League of Nations (Athans). Coughlin speedily incorporated Fahey’s antisemitism into his radio broadcasts in addition to Social Justice articles, every bit the National Union Party suffered its embarrassing election defeat.

In 1938 the periodical reprinted Protocols of the Elders of Zion.When cautioned nigh its authenticity, Coughlin exactly claimed that the document, forgery or not, accurately predicted global events. His radio broadcasts continued to depict connections betwixt the Depression inwards the United States, armed conflict inwards Europe, in addition to international Jewish finance.

Coughlin was rumored to accept several economical in addition to political contacts with Nazi figures inwards the US in addition to Germany. As the US entered World War II, Coughlin insisted that Jews had started the conflict to advance their ain agenda. As federal authorities in addition to Coughlin’s ain clerical superiors moved to quiet him, the priest alternated betwixt expressions of militant defiance in addition to meek acquiescence.

Coughlin believed that he was the victim of covert forces committed to his destruction. Christ had thrown moneylenders out of the Temple, in addition to consequently had been crucified; Coughlin portrayed his silencing along similar lines. Coughlin’s remaining audience, composed by in addition to large of High German in addition to Irish Gaelic Catholics inwards the urban Northeast, alone strengthened its resolve to back upwards the priest.

Silencing in addition to End of Career

Coughlin’s popularity in addition to unrelenting antisemitism caused consternation alongside the church’s authorities. Catholics had faced meaning anti-Catholic animosity every bit of late every bit the 1920s, which Coughlin’s early on broadcasts noticeably diminished. As Coughlin focused to a greater extent than on politics in addition to antisemitism, church building leaders sought to distinguish official teachings from Coughlin’s personal position.

However, Detroit’s Catholic bishop, Michael Gallagher, deflected much of the criticism. After Gallagher’s decease inwards 1937, Detroit’s novel bishop, Edward Mooney, sought repeatedly to quiet Coughlin, forcing his radio programme off the air inwards 1940.

Members of Christian Front, a nationwide organization Coughlin founded for immature Catholic men, were arrested for antigovernment conspiracies in addition to gang violence inwards Jewish neighborhoods. In 1942 Social Justice ceased publication, in addition to Mooney prohibited Coughlin from speaking or writing on whatever political matter. Coughlin returned to suburban Detroit’s anonymity.

While he deflected allegations of racism during the 1960s, Coughlin has since been noted every bit an early on precursor to white separatist movements in addition to Holocaust revisionism (Kaplan, 67–71; Warren, 5–6). His violence-tinged antisemitic rhetoric concerning the international Jewish conspiracy helps explicate the connection. Coughlin died inwards Royal Oak, Michigan, on 27 Oct 1979.

Japanese Americans

Japanese Americans

The Japanese American population became the target of a paranoid displace inwards the USA after the surprise Japanese laid on on Pearl Harbor on seven Dec 1941. Thousands of West-Coast Japanese Americans were incarcerated inwards concentration camps inwards 1942.

While white America believed these Japanese Americans were potential saboteurs too a “fifth column” inside the United States, the belief inwards a Japanese “conspiracy” was non a novel phenomenon—it built on a lengthy history of suspicion too racism toward Japanese Americans since their arrival inwards the USA inwards the belatedly nineteenth century.

Japanese began arriving inwards the United States, principally on the West Coast, from the 1880s too were rapidly confronted past times racist opposition. Labor too trade unions inwards item led the way, seeking to forestall Japanese settling too working inwards the United States.


Such attitudes emerged from a history of anti-Chinese sentiment; the Japanese were likewise disadvantaged due to laws that prevented them from becoming citizens (only “white” immigrants could teach citizens, dating dorsum to a 1770 law). Only the second generation (known equally Nisei), those born inwards the United States, could last citizens.

In the early on twentieth century the newspapers of William Randolph Hearst, along amongst a let on of anti-Japanese organizations, joined inwards the anti-Japanese crusade, trumpeting the “Yellow Peril.” They predicted that the Japanese would “crowd out the white race” on the West Coast.

The Japanese victory over Russia inwards the Russo-Japanese War made Nihon appear a threatening Pacific power. Further, diverse Japanese American community organizations were viewed equally sinister, too were fifty-fifty sometimes perceived equally purpose of an eventual plot to bring over the United States.

Such paranoia had existent results inwards pressuring politicians to bring stronger measures against the Japanese. An alien Earth law enacted inwards California inwards 1913 was a response to agitation that Japanese were taking over farmland too crowding out white farmers.

It was inwards practise largely ineffective, too so led to increased, rather than diminished, tensions too fears of Japanese conspiracies. The Immigration Act of 1924 hitting the Japanese especially strongly, reducing the let on of immigrants to a negligible number.

Thus, when Pearl Harbor was attacked, revealing the vulnerability of the USA too pitching it into a tearing Pacific war, in that location was already an atmosphere of mistrust too paranoia toward Japanese Americans that was arrive at to last heightened to hysteria.

There was likewise a history of racist authorities policies that, when added to the “exigencies of war” past times which too so much has frequently been justified, made the violation of commutation civil liberties acceptable. In the days next Pearl Harbor, “enemy aliens” became the target of federal too Earth authorities security measures.

The 8 Dec 1941 edition of the San Francisco Chronicle recorded the get-go roundup of “suspicious characters” too noted that the San Francisco police pull were mobilized to come across the threat of “sabotage.”

Despite protestations of loyalty from the Japanese American community, belief that they were all potential saboteurs, spies, too 5th columnists arrive at to aid a Japanese laid on on mainland America was pervasive.

By Feb 1942, many areas were barred to enemy aliens, which, the San Francisco Chronicle argued, would guard against “sabotage too other 5th column activities”; on iii Feb the paper likewise quoted California Attorney General Earl Warren, who declared “every alien Japanese should last considered inwards the calorie-free of a potential 5th columnist.”

Newspapers fomented this anti-Japanese hysteria, too along amongst a armed forces neat to utilization strong internal security measures too politicians acutely aware of the ask to response to the demands of their constituents, it was peradventure inevitable that simply about activity would last taken.

Military leaders spoke of the threat of the “fifth column”; they were likewise neat to apportion at to the lowest degree purpose of the blame for the disaster of Pearl Harbor on a Hawaiian–Japanese American 5th column.

At the same time, people similar Walter Lippmann, 1 of America’s almost respected journalists too social commentators, talked of the imminent danger of laid on from both without too inside the West Coast.

Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt, caput of the Western Defense Command, sanctioned bulk searches of Japanese homes, too a system past times which Japanese Americans were forced to register too were prevented from traveling. Slowly rights were stripped from Japanese Americans.

On xiii February, a Pacific Coast congressional delegation sent President Franklin D. Roosevelt a unanimous recommendation urging “immediate evacuation of all persons of Japanese lineage,” too half-dozen days later on Roosevelt signed Exceutive Order 9066 past times which over 120,000 people, a bulk of whom were U.S. citizens, were pose into concentration camps.

There were legal appeals disceptation the unconstitutionality of these actions but petty was done. Over the remaining years of World War II, simply about groups were released too resettled inwards the East too Midwest; others were pressured to renounce their citizenship too simply about of these, along amongst simply about noncitizens, were repatriated to Japan.

The state of war years saw the culmination of a deepseated racist mistrust of Japanese Americans; the years next the state of war saw movements to terminate legal discrimination against Asian Americans, including the Japanese.

But recognition of what was done inwards World War II was slow. Ultimately, inwards Feb 1976, Gerald Ford signed Proclamation 4417, formally recognizing the events of the state of war years equally a “national mistake.”

In the 1980s, a Commission on the Wartime Relocation too Internment of Civilians reported on the events too opened the agency for redress, financial too otherwise, for the survivors.

The handling of Japanese Americans from their arrival inwards the USA until the terminate of World War II reveals how racial paranoia too fearfulness toward an ethnic grouping tin last exaggerated into a belief inwards conspiracies to undermine republic too threaten safety, too given the correct circumstances tin teach a footing for unjust actions too a threat to the really republic inwards whose bring upward these actions are invoked.

Council On Unusual Relations

Council on Foreign Relations

Founded at the closed of World War I, the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) is an influential organization devoted to the report of unusual policy. Ever since 1952, when Emmanuel Josephson’s John Birch Society (JBS) inwards particular—have viewed the CFR equally a conspiratorial cabal amongst designs on global power.

Although the autumn of the Iron Curtain necessitated alteration to the theory of a CFR-Communist conspiracy, the JBS silent argues that the Council is genuinely a grouping of “establishment Insiders” intent on creating a socialist “One World Government.”

CFR members are good positioned for this coup, equally they tin live on found inwards the highest positions of the authorities (Henry Kissinger, George Bush, together with Bill Clinton); finance (the Rockefellers together with innumerable New York bankers); the legal Blue Planet (Supreme Court Justices O’Connor, Ginsburg, together with Breyer); together with the media (editors of the New York Times together with network tidings anchors); non to cite inwards other clandestine cabals such equally the Trilateral Commission together with the Bohemian Grove group.


According to the conspiracy theorists, contemporary political developments such equally the liberalization of global merchandise (e.g., NAFTA, GATT) together with the ascension of the United Nations are the outset steps toward the CFR’s ultimate goals: the halt of national sovereignty together with the enslavement of the entire Blue Planet nether the banner of their centralized, all-powerful “world government.” In this “New World Order,” U.S. armed forces forces volition live on employed equally oppressive agents of the global supergovernment—UN “peace-keeping” missions are simply the tip of this iceberg.

To live on fair, at that spot are a non bad many “charges” that members of the CFR would non assist to dispute, but the Council’s outlook on the New World Order is radically dissimilar from that of the JBS because of the historical context out of which the whole thought developed.

When the CFR was founded inwards 1919, Woodrow Wilson’s bespeak for a utopian international community constituted the starting betoken for many CFR members’ views on U.S. unusual policy. If World War I was to live on the “war to halt all wars,” it was essential to arrive at a novel international community that could repose the tensions betwixt nationstates earlier serious conflicts erupted.

What was needed, argued the Wilsonians, was less jingoistic nationalism together with to a greater extent than international cooperation; a displace toward creating “One World” from the divided, fractured Blue Planet of 1919 (and, indeed, since this was prior to the rabid anticommunism of the mutual coldness war, or then members thought inwards price of a “socialist” Blue Planet order, which was to locomote immensely unpopular 3 decades on).

Of course, for a multifariousness of reasons, lack of amount U.S. participation beingness one, the League of Nations never fulfilled this role, together with within a decade Europe was speedily descending into or then other era of bloodshed. The Council’s investigations into the causes of World War II exclusively reinforced the Wilsonian ideals of many members. The sectionalization of the world’s non bad powers combined amongst rampant nationalism had produced the preconditions for fascism, genocide, together with the almost amount devastation of Europe.

Council on Foreign Relations

Supporters of the CFR today would debate that the Council’s advocacy for a New World Order must live on understood inwards this context, together with that the displace toward international cooperation nether the aegis of the United Nations heralds an era of increasing peace together with prosperity rather than an Orwellian nightmare.

“Mainstream” critics together with historians of the CFR similar Robert Schulzinger (who genuinely suggests that much of the Council’s locomote is cliché-ridden together with ineffectual) debate that the Council’s ideas simply mirror the transformations brought on past times globalization, together with that to read the similarity betwixt the CFR’s ideas together with global developments equally involving a causal link is simply a mistake.

Thus, equally far equally the New World Order goes, it seems equally though ane man’s secular utopia is or then other man’s apocalypse; the sectionalization betwixt the 2 perspectives is completely unbridgeable, together with the apocalyptic side of the split is inevitably dismissed past times mainstream civilization equally “extreme.”

The accuse of elitism, however—the claim that the CFR is a network of “insiders” that shape an allpowerful East Coast “establishment”—is less easily dispelled, since the CFR is quite self-consciously elitist. The CFR argues that international relations should live on studied past times serious, dispassionate minds costless from the taint of impurities such equally nationalism.

At the outset of the mutual coldness war, for instance, George Kennan published his forthwith infamous “X” article inwards the CFR’s journal, Foreign Affairs, together with raised then much world hysteria surrounding the Soviet menace that the Council began to fearfulness that the number of U.S-Soviet relations would live on hijacked past times demagogues (and, inwards stance of what loomed on the horizon inwards McCarthyism, perchance this fearfulness was non misplaced). If the CFR is “secretive,” debate its proponents, it is because sometimes heightened world consciousness genuinely plant against the proper ends of international politics.

Even mainstream academics, however—people who would themselves no uncertainty live on designated “insiders” past times the JBS—might good debate that spell the CFR’s tillage of its status equally an elite organization may non accurately live on termed conspiratorial, it is non at all clear that it represents a positive evolution inwards U.S. political culture.

Togo

Togo is a small, narrow republic in western Africa. Slightly fewer than 22,000 square miles, with a north south distance of about 340 miles, Togo is situated between Ghana and Benin. The capital and largest city of Lomé is located on the western side of the 56 kilometer coastline on the Gulf of Guinea.

In spite o its small size, Togo’s population is diverse. There are 37 ethnic groups among its nearly 6 million people, who practice traditional religions, Christianity, and Islam. French is the official language although the African languages Ewe and Kabiyé are also taught.

Togo has one of Africa’s highest rates of population growth and highest rates of deforestation. Over two thirds of the population are engaged in agriculture and lives in areas with limited safe drinking water. In addition to other serious health problems, either HIV or AIDS results in about 10,000 deaths per year.

The slave trade was carried on in Togo during and after the 1600s. Germany made the territory the protectorate of Togoland in 1884 and during the next decade determined the permanent boundaries through agreements with France and Britain. The port city of Lomé was built by the Germans for shipment of goods from the interior.

In 1914 Germany surrendered Togoland to British and French troops. After World War I, France received Togoland in exchange for interior land granted to the British. After World War II, the United Nations gave Britain and France joint control of the territory.

In 1956 British Togo became part of the Gold Coast, which later became Ghana, while French Togo moved for independence. Under the leadership of Sylvanus Olympio, the National Union Party gained control of French Togo and refused an overture to unite with Ghana.

The United Nations granted membership to the new country in 1960. Three years later, Premier Olympio was assassinated in a military coup that installed Nicolas Grunitzky as president. A new constitution was drafted and approved by the nation.

When the army staged a second coup in 1967, the new government, headed by Étienne Eyadéma, dismissed the legislature and threw out the constitution. Eyadéma and his party, Rassemblement du Peuple Togolais (RPT, or Togolese People’s Assembly), created a new constitution.

In the elections that followed, Eyadéma was almost unanimously reelected president. On the 13th anniversary of his takeover of the government, Eyadéma announced the Third Togolese Republic. Unrest continued to plague Togo, and in 1986 France sent troops to help quell another attempted coup. Eyadéma was reelected to another seven-year term the same year.

Map of Togo

Eyadéma agreed in 1991 to work with a transitional government until general elections could be held. A national referendum in 1992 approved a new constitution. Among the provisions of the constitution were the establishment of multiparty elections and term limits for officials. In the 1993 election Eyadéma was still able to emerge as the victor for another term.

The elections resulted in a new legislature, which demanded concessions. In 1994 he appointed Edem Kodjo prime minister of a new coalition government. Nevertheless Eyadéma was reelected in 1998 and in 2003, after the legislature removed the term limits from the constitution.

When President Eyadéma died in February 2005, he was succeeded by his son Faure Gnassingbe. The succession, supported by the military but not by the constitution, was challenged by popular protest and a threat of sanctions from regional leaders. Gnassingbe easily won the elections he held in April 2005.

Marshal Tito (Josip Broz)

Josip Broz was born on May 7, 1892, and died on May 4, 1980. His life was caught up in some of the most momentous events of the 20th century. He fought in World War I, took part in the Russian Revolution, became a leader of guerrilla resistance to the German occupation of Yugoslavia, and after World War II until his death he was the leader of the country.

During this period, he defied Joseph Stalin over the communist consolidation of power in Yugoslavia. "Tito" was a pseudonym that he adopted during his underground activities, and it was with this name that he became well known during World War II.

Tito was born in the village of Kumroves, some 50 kilometers northwest of Zagreb in what was then Austria-Hungary. His native village is located in the valley of the river Sutla, which served as a boundary between Croatia and Slovenia. Tito’s father was a Croatian peasant, and his mother was Slovenian from a village across the river.

In 1907, at the age of 15, he left home and went to the town of Sisak (Croatia), where he became an apprentice to a locksmith. Tito completed his apprenticeship in 1910 and began a series of mechanic jobs, which took him to factories across central Europe.


In the autumn of 1913 Tito was called up for his military service, which he did with the 25th Croatian Territorial Infantry Regiment based in Zagreb. When Austria-Hungary attacked Serbia in July 1914, Tito, already a sergeant, was sent to fight on the Serbian front.

In January 1915 his regiment was transferred to Galicia in anticipation of a Russian offensive. There Tito was put in charge of a reconnoitering section operating behind enemy lines. However, during a Russian attack in April 1915, he was seriously wounded and taken as a prisoner of war (POW).

It was during this time that Tito began sympathizing with the ideas of Bolshevism. In June 1917 he escaped from the POW camp and made his way to Petrograd in search of work, but the suppression of Bolshevik demonstrations forced him to flee to Finland.

While attempting to cross the border he was captured and sent back to the POW camp, but he escaped on the way and arrived in Bolshevik-controlled Omsk in Siberia in autumn 1917. He enrolled in the Red Guard and applied for membership in the Communist Party.

Marshal Tito and Winston Churchill in 1944 in Naples, Italy

When the Bolsheviks retook Omsk in 1919, he started making his way back to Croatia. Tito returned to Kumrovec in October 1920, where he found that his village had become part of the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (changed to Yugoslavia in 1929).

Upon his return he joined the newly founded Communist Party in Zagreb and became active in the union movement. During the 1920s he worked as a mechanic in factories across Yugoslavia. In 1927 he became secretary of the Metalworkers’ Union of Croatia.

His activities brought him to the attention of the police, and in August 1928 he was arrested. Upon his release from prison in 1934 Tito resumed full-time clandestine activities for the Yugoslav Communist Party.

In February 1935 he was sent to Moscow for training with the Balkan Department of the Comintern. He stayed there until September 1936, when he was sent back to consolidate the Yugoslav party and recruit volunteers to fight in the Spanish civil war.

During 1937 the factionalism within the Yugoslav Communist Party increased, and in the atmosphere of uncertainty Tito asserted his authority by setting up an interim secretariat under his leadership. Moscow offered him provisional approval in the beginning of 1939, and Tito was officially confirmed as a secretary at a party congress in October 1940.

In April of 1941 the Axis powers invaded, occupied, and partitioned Yugoslavia, which triggered a civil war in the country. Tito formed the Partisan Army of National Liberation, which waged guerrilla war against the occupying forces. In the process Tito’s partisans also turned against rival guerrilla organizations, in particular the internationally recognized "Chetniks" of Draža Mihailovic´.

Tito and his partisans emerged victorious from the war, and, despite his promises to form a government of national unity, he immediately began consolidating his authority and establishing communist rule over the territory of Yugoslavia.

At the same time Tito was entertaining ideas of leading a Balkan federation involving Albania, Bulgaria, and potentially Greece. The prospect of a regional federation under Tito’s leadership seemed likely during 1947 and brought Tito into a direct confrontation with Stalin.

In 1948 the Yugoslav Communist Party was excluded from the Cominform (the postwar name for the Comintern), and this turned Tito into the first communist leader to break with the Soviet Union. This gave him both new international prominence and domestic appeal, which helped him consolidate his position in Yugoslavia.

In domestic affairs Tito promoted the principles of brotherhood and workers’ self-management (a form of market-oriented socialism), in parallel with his ongoing suppression of internal dissent.

His death in 1980 was a shock for the country, and the seeming stability of Yugoslavia began to crack under the strains of national factionalism. Many commentators trace the origins of the 1990s Yugoslav dissolution to Tito’s authoritarian rule.

Third World/Global South

The term Third World applies to those nations in Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and the Western Hemisphere that mostly secured independence from the imperial powers after World War II. In the cold war construct the First World, dominated by the United States, also included Western Europe, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan.

These nations were wealthy, highly industrialized, urban, largely secular, democratic, and had capitalist economies. The Second World consisted of the Soviet bloc, dominated by the Soviet Union.

These nations were industrialized but not as wealthy as the First World; they were secular, authoritarian, and had socialist economics. The Third World nations, consisting of two-thirds of the world’s population, were poor, rural, and agrarian, with traditional societies.


After the breakup of the Soviet bloc and the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the terms no longer applied and because most of the nations of the Third World were south of the equator the term Global South came to be used as a collective label for these nations.

The gap between rich and poor nations grew in the 20th century. As the Indian prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru commented, "The poor have to run fast just to keep up". Third World countries were caught in a cycle of poverty, with low incomes and low production. After independence many became dictatorships and attempted to improve their economies, usually unsuccessfully, by adopting socialist systems on the Soviet state capitalist model.

Economists often referred to the poor developing nations as low-GDP (low Gross Domestic Product) countries, meaning they produced little in the way of goods and services. Countries in the Global South adopted a wide variety of methods to break out of the cycle of poverty.

In China Mao Zedong led a socialist revolution and mobilized the masses, but only with privatization after his death did the Chinese economy begin to take off. India, the world’s most populous democracy, adopted a capitalist approach; India also successfully applied the technology of the Green Revolution, the use of hybrid seeds to increase agricultural productivity.

At the beginning of the 20th century, India suffered major famines but by the end of the century it was exporting foodstuffs. India and many other poor nations also invested heavily in education. In Southeast Asia educated workers became the backbone of industrialization and the development of high-tech firms.

Other nations built huge development projects, such as the Aswan Dam in Egypt and the Three Gorges Dam in China. Following Western advice in the 1950s and 1960s, many Third World nations concentrated on industrialization, to the detriment of the agricultural sector. That, along with ecological changes, droughts along wide bands of Africa, civil wars, political corruption, and instability, contributed to large famines and mass starvation in many African nations.

In the Middle East oil-producing nations joined a cartel, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), to gain increased revenues from their major resource. They then used the new revenues to build modern infrastructures. Kuwait was able to provide a complete welfare system from cradle to grave for its small population.

Other countries, such as the "little dragons" in Southeast Asia (Taiwan, South Korea, and Singapore), attracted foreign businesses and industries. Many nations in South America and Africa also borrowed vast amounts of money from private and public Western banks, such as the World Bank, to bring much-needed capital into their countries.

Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) also provided assistance in welfare, food, education, and healthcare. Brazil used foreign loans to create new industries and provide jobs, but it, along with many other countries, became ensnared in a web of indebtedness that was impossible to repay.

By the 1990s rich nations promised but often failed to deliver increased foreign aid and to forgive or restructure the debts of these nations, especially the poorest in Africa. Other nations had some modest successes in adopting appropriate technology to establish small, inexpensive grassroots projects.

Population growth also contributed to economic problems. In Kenya the population doubled every 18 years and in Egypt every 26 years, compared to every 92 in the United States. By 2000 the world’s population had exceeded 6 billion, from 1 billion in 1800. It was expected to reach 9 billion by 2054.

In poor countries high infant mortality contributed to the desire to have many children in hopes that at least some would survive to adulthood and be able to care for their parents, especially their mothers, in their old age. To limit its population China adopted a draconian one-child policy and strictly enforced it through its totalitarian system.

India adopted numerous approaches in attempts to limit population growth; these were often accepted by urban elites, but peasants continued to value large families. In societies where women had low status, having children, especially boys, brought status and the hope of some security.

The educational status of many improved, and literacy rates improved, although in many countries boys enjoyed higher rates of education than girls. While programs to empower women were often successful, they were also resisted by traditional and religious leaders.

Women’s work continued to be undervalued and underpaid. Child labor was yet another problem. Globalization and privatization in the late 20th century actually caused some nations to become poorer as prices for agricultural goods and raw materials dropped.

In some Global South nations, such as India, a few people became millionaires, but most remained desperately poor. In the 1990s, incomes in 54 nations actually declined, and in Zimbabwe life expectancy fell from 56 to 331, compared to over 80 in the United States and Japan. Disease, especially AIDS, contributed to further economic and social problems, particularly in many southern African countries.

At the 2000 Millennium Summit, world leaders agreed to institute programs aimed at cutting in half the number of people living on under $1 a day and at halving the number of people suffering from hunger by 2015. Five years later the commitments of the donor nations, especially the United States, had fallen short of the promises made, and it remained uncertain whether the goals would be met.