Nativism

Nativism

At its pinnacle inwards the nineteenth century, nativism was the often conspiratorial hostility of white, native-born, Protestant Americans to European immigrants that, at times, was embodied inwards political movements in addition to evolved into truly exclusionist policies.

In the 1850s, a burgeoning coalition of self-proclaimed nativists swept into role in addition to called for radical change. During the nineteenth century, the perception of immigrants shifted from welcome to demonization, unremarkably depending on whether the the States was going through economical expansion or stagnation.

From the start, immigration in addition to the resulting competition, whether religious, class, or racial, betwixt ethnic groups became a key number inwards the evolution of the United States, in addition to 1 that was oft expressed inwards the rhetoric of conspiracy theory.


Historically, immigration falls into 3 periods: colonial in addition to eighteenth century; “Old” inwards the starting fourth dimension one-half of the nineteenth century; in addition to “New” starting inwards the 1880s. The decade from 1845 to 1854 saw the greatest proportionate influx of immigrants inwards U.S. history. By 1860 to a greater extent than than 1 out of every 8 Americans was foreign-born, with the most numerous beingness Irish, German, in addition to English linguistic communication immigrants.

Each menstruum generated its ain form of nativist reaction, from Know-Nothingism (the openly nativist political political party of the 1840s in addition to 1850s), to anti-immigration laws (the starting fourth dimension beingness the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, culminating inwards the closing of the gates through the National Origins Acts of 1921 in addition to 1924).

It is of import to note, however, that openness to immigration has remained the bulk opinion, for inwards Tom Paine’s words, the the States was to hold out “an asylum for the persecuted lovers of civil in addition to religious liberty” from all parts of the world.

In the colonial period, although ethnic mixture was the reality, with a bulk white population living with an Indian in addition to a dark grouping of African origin, the white grouping was real heterogeneous inwards its composition. The bulk were of English linguistic communication rootage but many were Dutch, French Huguenots, German, in addition to Scots-Irish, which created frictions.

For instance, inwards the Massachusetts colony, the Puritans did all they could non to acknowledge non-English settlers. In spite of the reality of ethnic plurality, the global perception was that of Englishness. Hence, afterward the Revolution, the threescore pct of English linguistic communication rootage inwards the white community took political might in addition to laid the melody culturally.

Early nativism was marked yesteryear a belief inwards full assimilation, the giving upward of one’s one-time culture, language, in addition to behaviour to hold out blended into a novel identity, that of an American, equally celebrated yesteryear Hector Saint John de Crèvecoeur, who glorified the Earth of limitless opportunities to all newcomers (the “melting-pot” theory).

The asylum tradition was promoted through the 1790 Naturalization Act, which made it possible for virtually anybody to hold out admitted in addition to naturalized into a citizen. However, this “generous” deed contained limitations; entirely “free white persons” who had resided inwards the the States for at to the lowest degree 2 years were eligible for naturalization. Hence, from the start, the reality of social in addition to political exclusion—of blacks in addition to Indians—paved the agency for future exclusions.

The self-image of hospitality was seriously tested at the fourth dimension of the 1798 Alien in addition to Sedition Acts, which gave the president arbitrary countersubversive powers to exclude or conduct whatever foreigner deemed to hold out dangerous, in addition to to prosecute anybody publishing or writing inwards “a false, scandalous in addition to malicious nature” almost the president or Congress.


The authorities was reacting against European radicals whose political activities were considered subversive. The Naturalization Act was amended to render for a fourteen-year residency requirement for prospective citizens; inwards 1802, Congress reduced the waiting menstruum to v years, a provision that remains inwards effect today.

Anti-Catholicism

In the next decades, most immigrants entering the the States were Roman Catholics (one-third of all immigrants betwixt 1830 in addition to 1840 were from Catholic Ireland), in addition to so ethnic prejudice against immigrants was also unremarkably accompanied yesteryear conspiracy-mongering against Catholicism.

Since the colonial period, Americans had come upward to seat themselves equally a Protestant nation, in addition to many leading Protestant clergymen had cautioned the province against a papal plot to destroy U.S. freedom in addition to society.

In the nineteenth century this conspiratorial tradition fed into nativism inwards a multifariousness of forms: exclusive nativist clubs in addition to fraternities such equally the Order of United Americans or the United Sons of America; in addition to political parties, specially when the social in addition to economical province of affairs was bleak, equally inwards the belatedly 1830s, the early on 1840s, in addition to the mid-1850s.

These groups attracted middle-class Protestants, members of the 2 “traditional” parties (Democratic in addition to Whig), in addition to working-class voters who resented what they considered to hold out the project contest from immigrants, the increment inwards crime, world drunkenness, in addition to pauperism, in addition to the manipulation of immigrant voters.

More important was the proliferation of nativist propaganda. Prompted yesteryear the tidings of an Austrian Catholic missionary fellowship sending coin in addition to men to the United States, Samuel F. B. Morse, a distinguished professor of sculpture in addition to paradigm at New York University, wrote Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Foreign Conspiracy against the Liberties of the the States (1834) in addition to he went on to break The Imminent Dangers to the Free Institutions of the the States (1835), both of which involved denunciations of the Catholic conspiracy against the United States.

Lyman Beecher, a seventh-generation clergyman in addition to president of Lane Theological Seminary inwards Cincinnati, published Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Plea for the West inwards 1835, inwards which he exposed the alleged plot yesteryear the pope to fix a “Vatican” inwards the West yesteryear sending hordes of Catholic settlers there. However, perchance the most effective was the “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” of nativism, the Awful Disclosures of Maria Monk, which sold 300,000 inwards 1836.

Monk told of her alleged experiences with Catholicism, which involved forced sexual intercourse with priests in addition to the murdering of nuns in addition to children. Although her woman nurture denied the legitimacy of her work, stating that Maria never belonged to the nunnery in addition to that a encephalon injury her immature lady received equally a kid could hold out the get of her stories, the volume was widely accepted equally truth.

In 1841, the Vindicator was published yesteryear Rev. W. C. Brownlee, the leader of the New York Protestant Association. In the same year, in that location was growing concern inwards New York State that Catholics were gaining influence inwards schools because of the activeness of Archbishop John Hughes of New York.

He was seeking to obtain province aid for Catholic schools, which was interpreted equally both a subversive plot against the First Amendment, in addition to a refusal yesteryear Catholics to attend world schools in addition to hold out assimilated. In 1842, the American Protestant Association was founded yesteryear 100 Clergymen inwards Philadelphia to oppose Catholics.

This propaganda led to agitation, rioting, in addition to mobbing. Although Catholics occasionally reacted to the nativist displace with violence, nativists instigated the greater percentage of those vehement acts. In Boston, in that location were numerous riots inwards 1823, 1826, in addition to 1829. In May 1832, these potentially explosive weather condition produced a riot at a New York Protestant Association meeting.

Further, piece addressing a Baltimore Baptist audience inwards 1834, a grouping of Catholics attacked a Baptist speaker. On 10 August 1834 a mob of 40 to 50 people gathered exterior of the Ursuline Convent School at Charlestown, close Boston, in addition to burned it to the ground. Although 8 people were arrested in addition to tried, entirely 1 was sentenced to life imprisonment.

This rather lenient sentence, together with the lack of condemnation inwards moderate Protestant circles, shows how widespread hostility to Catholics had become. The violence continued into the next decade when, for example, xxx people were killed in addition to hundreds injured during nativist riots inwards Philadelphia inwards 1844.

Political Nativism

Anti-Catholicism gradually evolved into a political crusade. In 1844, James Harper founded the American Republican Party inwards monastic tell to intermission the deadlock betwixt the Whig in addition to Democratic Parties inwards New York State, in addition to offering approximately other approach to politics.

It allied with the Whigs, which resulted inwards the defeat of the Democratic Party. The American Republican Party demonstrated the political relevance of the nativist displace in addition to paved the agency for the entrance of the Know-Nothings into the national political scene equally the entirely coherent arrangement to residuum its political activeness on hostility to immigration in addition to to Catholics.

The American Party had its origins inwards 1849 inwards New York. At starting fourth dimension a cloak-and-dagger fellowship called the Order of the Star-Spangled Banner, it became a formal political party inwards 1853, in addition to its members were dubbed the Know-Nothings (after their refusal to respond questions almost their involvement) yesteryear Horace Greeley, a famous paper editor. By the middle of the 1850s the political party ranked over a 1 grand one thousand members across the country.

At the local level, inwards the 1854 election, the Know-Nothings won 6 governorships in addition to controlled legislatures inwards Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, in addition to California, where they passed discriminatory laws against immigrants, including the starting fourth dimension literacy tests for voting, inwards monastic tell to disenfranchise the Irish.

The party’s platform focused on voting rights, stretching the residency menstruum earlier naturalization from v to twenty-one years, in addition to requiring the exclusion of foreigners in addition to Catholics from world office. After the defeat of their candidate inwards the presidential election of 1856, the Know-Nothings were divide yesteryear their inability to overcome the slavery issue.

They lost influence in addition to were absorbed into the expanding Republican Party, formed inwards 1854. However, approximately other of import factor inwards their reject was that non all Americans opposed the arrival of novel immigrants because they were much needed yesteryear industrialists, railroad builders, in addition to other businessmen equally unskilled labor willing to convey lower wages.

Exclusion or Americanization?

After the Civil War, “new immigrants” from southern in addition to key Europe, fifty-fifty to a greater extent than numerous in addition to alien, increased the demonological anxiety of the native-born, which led to numerous conflicts in addition to a radical reexamination of the country’s immigration policy.

From 1880 to 1930 a full of 25 1 grand one thousand newcomers entered the United States. The to a greater extent than numerous were Italians, Jews, in addition to Slavs—totaling to a greater extent than than nine million—who brought inwards novel customs, manners, languages, in addition to religions.

To this current of immigration 1 should add together the massive dark migration to the North. All these groups were scattered throughout the province but they tended to flock together inwards big cities, specially inwards New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, in addition to New England.

In this era of laissez-faire capitalism, nativism evolved into the fearfulness that bird conflict would destroy the social stuff of the United States. Mounting labor organization, in addition to the importation of socialist in addition to anarchist ideologies yesteryear immigrants, rekindled the conspiracy theories.

The vehement strikes of the 1870s in addition to 1880s were hence seen equally signs of forthcoming disaster. In this climate, the American Protective Association was organized equally a cloak-and-dagger fellowship dedicated to eradicating “foreign despotism,” which included Catholics. One of its aims was to ban German-language instruction.

Nativism took on a special coloring inwards the West, where the fearfulness was of Chinese immigrants, considered a threat to white workers because they accepted lower wages. The Workingmen’s Party led a displace for a novel province constitution inwards California inwards 1878 in addition to 1879 that included stringent discriminatory measures.

At the national level, riots in addition to mobbing, specially inwards Wyoming in addition to New York, led to mounting pressure level yesteryear California in addition to other western states on Congress to top the nation’s starting fourth dimension immigration restriction, which approximately commentators have got viewed equally the institutionalization of racial paranoia. In 1882, the Chinese Exclusion Act excluded the Chinese from naturalization in addition to immigration.

More restrictions were introduced inwards 1892, in addition to Chinese immigration was banned permanently inwards 1902. In 1906 the starting fourth dimension English linguistic communication language requirements for naturalization were enacted. The U.S. authorities legislated gradually to unopen the doors yesteryear limiting Japanese immigration through the Gentlemen’s Agreement of 1907–1908.

In the 1917 Immigration Law, Congress enacted a literacy requirement for all novel immigrants in addition to designated Asia equally a “barred zone” (excepting Nihon in addition to the Philippines). The 1921 National Origins Act inaugurated the quota system, yesteryear which admissions from each European province was limited to 3 pct of each foreign-born nationality inwards the 1910 census.

It effectively favored northern Europeans at the expense of southern in addition to eastern Europeans in addition to Asians. The 1924 Johnson-Reed Act tin hold out considered equally a perfect application of nativist concerns for racial homogeneity since it confirmed that immigration quotas were based on the ethnic makeup of the U.S. population equally a whole inwards 1920.

It was non until 1965 that racial criteria were removed from U.S. immigration legislation. An annual quota of 20,000 was awarded to each country, regardless of ethnicity, nether a ceiling of 170,000. Up to 120,000 were allowed to immigrate from Western Hemisphere nations, non dependent plain to quotas (until 1976).

Meanwhile, at the cease of the nineteenth century inwards the wake of the Progressive movement, the muckrakers, social workers, in addition to social reformers drew the public’s attending to the poverty, disease, in addition to criminal offence rates of immigrant ghettos.

Moreover, they sought to twain the gap betwixt newcomers in addition to native-born Americans. The “new immigrants” were less skilled, less educated, to a greater extent than clannish, in addition to slower to larn English. However, inwards monastic tell to create out with their novel life, immigrants tended to organize into minority societies, trying to save equally much of the group’s civilisation equally possible.

But growing concern for national homogeneity urged many to retrieve that a displace to “Americanize”—meaning assimilation—was necessary. Thus the Bureau of Americanization was created to encourage employers to brand English linguistic communication classes compulsory for their foreign-born workers.

For example, inwards the Ford Motor Company School, the starting fourth dimension affair an immigrant was asked to larn to say was, “I am an American.” Most states banned schooling inwards other tongues; approximately fifty-fifty prohibited the study of unusual languages inwards the unproblematic grades, inwards the belief that world schools were the major tool for Americanization.

English Only?

The global tendency since Word War II has been to diminish discrimination, at to the lowest degree yesteryear statute, in addition to to cut prejudice against immigrants in addition to members of ethnic minorities. Hostility for sure lost much of its conspiracy-minded intensity, with the combined effects of the civil rights displace in addition to the contend yesteryear Hispanics in addition to Native Americans for equal rights.

However, the cease of racial quotas inwards 1965 led many Third World people to displace into the United States, specially those coming from Central in addition to South America, which alarmed many Americans in addition to gave novel targets to nativism, specially inwards the states where those immigrants tended to flock together. The query of bilingualism in addition to so became the key number of nativists.

In the 1980s the “English only” displace was launched to limit the linguistic communication of authorities to English linguistic communication in addition to encourage immigrants to larn English. Illegal immigration was approximately other chemical constituent that encouraged nativist anxieties, equally encapsulated inwards President Ronald Reagan’s annunciation inwards 1984 that “we have got lost command of our ain borders.”

Illegal immigrants were seen equally a threat to native-born workers in addition to an obstruction to unions, equally they were enjoying all the advantages of living inwards America (schools, hospitals, welfare benefits) piece escaping all the drawbacks, similar taxes.

However, no legislation managed to curb the number of “undocumented” aliens on U.S. territory. In California, approximately other upsurge of activism took house inwards the 1990s due to economical stagnation, rise racial tensions, in addition to the widening gap betwixt the rich in addition to the poor.

Voters approved Proposition 187, which was meant to strength world agencies (schools, police, in addition to social in addition to wellness services) to discovery out the immigration status of supposedly undocumented aliens, in addition to written report them to the immigration authorities. The initiatory was judged unconstitutional. However, a straightaway outcome was the enactment yesteryear Congress of legislation toughening immigration enforcement laws.

Operation Paperclip

Operation Paperclip

Between 1945 as well as 1955, to a greater extent than than 1,600 German linguistic communication as well as Austrian technicians as well as scientists were brought to the US through a projection codenamed Operation Paperclip as well as a serial of sis programs.

Despite the fact that many of those scientists—among them Wernher von Braun, the manful mortal raise of the U.S. rocket program—were rumored to hold upwards Nazi state of war criminals, U.S. authorities as well as military machine officials allegedly concealed information most many of them inwards a major cover-up attempt aimed at facilitating their legal entry into the United States. U.S. officers identified the chosen German linguistic communication scientists past times attaching a paperclip to their personal file.

Even earlier the halt of World War II, U.S. scientists as well as military machine personnel had begun the search for German linguistic communication scientists nether Operation Paperclip’s predecessor, Project Overcast. They felt the bespeak for German linguistic communication expertise because outstanding German linguistic communication blueprint as well as technology had oftentimes offset Allied advantages of manpower during the war.


Therefore, they were peculiarly interested inwards locating experts inwards rocketry, aircraft design, as well as aviation medicine, to work their capabilities to shorten the state of war against Japan. Hundreds of Germans were taken to query centers, amidst them many of the scientists who had been engaged inwards developing the V2 rocket at the Peenemünde missile base of operations on the Baltic Sea nether Wernher von Braun.

Other prominent German linguistic communication scientists included von Braun’s unopen associate, General Walter Dornberger; the latter’s wartime master copy of staff, Herbert Axter; the deputy technical director, Arthur Rudolph; as well as an aviation doctor, Hubertus Strughold.

The grouping included other scientists non involved inwards rocketry, such equally infectious diseases goodness Walter Schreiber, desalinization specialist Konrad Schaefer, as well as Kurt Blome, who was engaged inwards biological warfare research.

U.S. authorities agencies decided that the US should secure their services permanently as well as permit them to immigrate. The reasons for the apparent willingness of authorities as well as Earth forces officials to overlook as well as actively conceal data most German linguistic communication scientists’ active involvement inwards state of war crimes were manifold.

In add-on to exploiting German linguistic communication technical know-how, the procedure assured that Deutschland could non work its scientists as well as their noesis to rebuild its forces. Finally, an intense contest for German linguistic communication technical expertise, non alone amongst the Soviet Union, but equally good amongst French Republic as well as Great Britain, triggered a policy of denial born out of the fearfulness that America’s competitors could tip the strategic residual inwards their favor.

Therefore, the State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee formulated the policy newspaper SWNCC 257/5, which allowed the admittance of specialists from Deutschland inwards the national interest. This required a special policy equally U.S. immigration constabulary forbade the entry of members of fascist organizations. Official Paperclip policy prohibited the utilization of state of war criminals or active Nazis, but did non explicitly dominion out nominal political party members.

According to Linda Hunt, a onetime CNN investigative reporter, who was the kickoff researcher to own got access to formerly closed material, the kickoff background checks of possible candidates for Project Paperclip past times the Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency (JIOA)—the means nether the Joint Chiefs of Staff responsible for the implementation of the operation—revealed that many had participated inwards brutalized slave labor as well as experiments on humans, as well as had committed other crimes.

Therefore, State Department officials, especially the liaison to the JIOA, Samuel Klaus, refused to pick out many of the applicants, believing that Nazi state of war criminals constituted a threat to U.S. security.

In reaction to this deadlock betwixt the State Department as well as the JIOA, the latter patently advised the Earth forces to withhold or modify incriminating dossiers most German linguistic communication scientists. The written report on Wernher von Braun from September 1948, for example, described him equally a potential safety threat. Five months later on the Earth forces had upgraded his classification to the work of a mere opportunist.

The expertise the Germans brought amongst them played a vital work inwards the U.S. infinite program, inwards detail inwards the evolution of the Saturn rockets as well as the astronauts’ grooming for high-altitude flying. For decades, authorities agencies as well as the world were non concerned that alleged Nazi state of war criminals lived inwards the US as well as were employed inwards authorities programs as well as individual corporations.

The mid-1970s saw the kickoff legislative investigations into the matter, partly due to a growing awareness that the concluding survivors of the Holocaust as well as slave labor would popular off soon. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 subcommittee of the House Judiciary Committee nether the leadership of Joshua Eilberg (D-PA) held hearings inwards 1977 as well as 1978.

Its members concluded that authorities agencies had been to a greater extent than concerned most Communist propaganda than bringing these criminals to justice. Partly equally a effect of these deliberations, the Office of Special Investigations (OSI) was founded inwards 1979, amongst the destination to locate as well as essay Nazi state of war criminals living inwards the United States.

It renewed its efforts after the opening of Russian archives to U.S. OSI researchers inwards the early on 1990s, but due to the expiry of most suspects their investigations are destined to hold upwards curt lived. As most Germans who participated inwards Operation Paperclip entered the US legally, none of them own got been prosecuted.

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was established in 1960. Its first meeting was held in 1961, and, beginning in 1965, it was headquartered in Vienna. The charter members included Venezuela, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia.

Abd Tuhan al-Tariki, the Saudi director of petroleum affairs, played a leading role in the organization’s inception. OPEC membership was later expanded to include Libya, Algeria, Indonesia, Qatar, Nigeria, UAR, Gabon, and Ecuador.

In 1968 the major Arab oil-producing nations formed OAPEC (Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries). OPEC members met on a regular basis to set quotas for production; however, the organization lacked the mechanism to enforce the quotas, which were frequently ignored or openly flouted by individual producing nations.


Nations with large populations such as Iran, Algeria, and Nigeria tended to push for price increases. Nations with small populations and lesser economic domestic demands preferred stable prices. Because of their production capacity and huge reserves, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait were able to increase production to prevent price increases or to keep prices low.

In the 1980s Saudi Arabia’s proven oil reserves contained over 168 billion barrels, Kuwait had over 66 billion barrels, and Iraq had 43 billion barrels, as compared to 27.3 billion barrels in the United States. By the 1980s the United States was also importing over half its oil, as compared to only 25 percent in the early 1970s.

In 1970 the new revolutionary government in Libya under Muammar Qaddafi forced production cuts to secure higher royalties. The petroleum companies—dominated by the so-called seven sisters, Western-owned corporations—bitterly opposed such pressure tactics, but because of ever-increasing demands they ultimately agreed to Libyan terms. The rest of the oil-producing nations soon followed suit and secured similar concessions. The price of oil then rose from $2 to $3 per barrel and then to $5 per barrel.

During the peak of the oil boom in the 1970s Sheik Ahmad Zaki Yamani, secretary-general of OPEC from 1968 to 1969, served as the Saudi Arabian minister of petroleum. During the 1973 Arab-Israeli War King Faysal in Saudi Arabia was persuaded to use oil as a weapon, and cuts in supplies to those nations supporting Israel were announced.

However, Faysal was a staunch anticommunist, and, when the United States and Egyptian president Anwar el-Sadat argued that the oil boycott could increase the threat of communism in the Arab and Muslim world, King Faysal effectively ended the boycott by withdrawing Saudi support in 1974. In 1986, when Yamani supported raising oil prices, King Fahd removed him from office.

With its huge reserves Saudi Arabia, and, to a lesser extent, Kuwait, could force price modifications by simply increasing production. By 1996 Saudi Arabia had become the world’s largest petroleum exporter. After the Iran-Iraq War Kuwait began to flood the market, exceeding its quota and driving down prices.

The lower prices hurt Iraq at the very time that it was desperately trying to increase revenues to rebuild its economy; this was a contributing factor in the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and the resulting First Gulf War. Depressed prices, largely caused by high production by the Arab Gulf states and Saudi Arabia, also contributed to Ecuador’s withdrawal from OPEC in 1992.

Owing to increased demand by burgeoning Indian and Chinese economies and ongoing wars in Afghanistan and the Middle East, the price of oil reached $60 per barrel in 2006 and prices continued to rise.

High prices resulted in huge profits for Western oil companies as well as for the oil-producing nations. In one quarter of 2006 Exxon-Mobil, the world’s largest petroleum corporation, posted profits of over $7 billion.

Although governments talked about cost control measures, alternative fuel sources, and conservation, few practical programs were adopted either in the West or in Asia. Thus it remained certain that petroleum would continue to be the world’s primary energy source for the foreseeable future.

Opinion Polls Most Conspiracy Theories

Conspiracy Theories

According to polls, most Americans today grip that the scenario posed past times at to the lowest degree i pop conspiracy theory is rattling probable or somewhat likely.

On 25–29 June 1997, a survey was conducted of 1,009 people nationwide, alongside participants from every state as well as the District of Columbia. Guido H. Stempel III, distinguished professor of the EW Scripps School of Journalism at Ohio University as well as Thomas Hargrove of the Scripps Howard News Service conducted the survey.

The results convey a 4 percent margin of error alongside a 95 percent confidence interval, pregnant that the results are projectable to all U.S. households 95 times out of 100 addition or minus 4 per centum points. At that time:

• More than one-half (51 percent) believe it is rattling probable or somewhat probable that authorities officials were “directly responsible for the assassination of President Kennedy.”
• More than one-half (60 percent) believe is probable that armed forces officials covered upward the dangers of the Agent Orange chemical.
• Four-fifths (80 percent) believe it is probable that armed forces officials are roofing upward data virtually U.S. soldiers’ exposure to nervus gas or germ warfare inward the Gulf War.
• More than one-third (40 percent) believe it is probable that the FBI burned downwards the Branch Davidian chemical compound inward Waco, Texas.
• More than one-half (52 percent) believe it is probable that the CIA allowed drug dealers from Central America to sell fissure cocaine to African Americans inward U.S. inner cities.
• More than one-third believe it is probable the navy shot downwards TWA Flight 800 either intentionally or accidentally.

Respondents were asked if the higher upward situations were probable to about degree. The higher upward responses included the “very likely” as well as “somewhat likely” answers. Note that believing that something is “somewhat likely” may hold out the admission of possibility, non a theater belief.

JFK Assassination

JFK earlier assassination

Most Americans say that to a greater extent than than i mortal was involved inward the JFK assassination. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Gallup Poll was conducted 26–28 March 2001 alongside telephone interviews of a randomly selected sample of 1,024 adults aged eighteen as well as older. The results are projectable to all U.S. households alongside a 95 percent confidence as well as 3 percent margin of error. At that time, when asked, “Do you lot retrieve that i human being was responsible for the assassination of President Kennedy, or arrive at you lot retrieve that others were involved inward a conspiracy?”—with the possible answers “one man,” “others involved” as well as “no opinion”:

Fourth-fifths (81 percent) responded that they believed that other people were involved inward a conspiracy to assassinate President Kennedy, an all-time high.

In the 1997 Scripps Howard News Service/Ohio University nationwide poll, the inquiry concerned non to a greater extent than than i person, only authorities officials alongside direct involvement inward the assassination of President Kennedy inward 1963. The poll discovered:

More than one-half (51 percent) of Americans believe it is rattling probable or somewhat probable that authorities officials were “directly responsible for the assassination of President Kennedy.”

AIDS as well as Drugs

Aids

Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 sizable number of people would grip alongside at to the lowest degree i of the accusations that the authorities manufactured AIDS or made drugs available inward inner cities to assault African Americans. In a 1990 poll, reported inward the 29 Oct 1990 edition of the New York Times:

• Nearly one-third (29 percent) of dark New Yorkers indicated belief that AIDS was “deliberately created inward a laboratory inward companionship to infect dark people,” versus i inward 20 (5 percent) amid white New Yorkers.
• More than one-half (60 percent) of dark New Yorkers indicated belief that the authorities “deliberately” made drugs available to pitiable dark people, versus a petty to a greater extent than than i inward 10 (12 percent) amid white New Yorkers.

In about other 1990 survey, reported inward the two Nov 1995 edition of the Boston Globe:

More than one-third (34 percent) of dark churchgoers polled inward 5 cities agreed “the AIDS virus was produced inward a germ warfare laboratory.”

The 1997 Scripps Howard News Service/Ohio University nationwide poll discovered:

More than one-half (52 percent) of Americans believe it probable that the CIA allowed drug dealers from Central America to sell fissure cocaine to African Americans inward U.S. inner cities.

Pearl Harbor

About i inward 3 Americans say that President Roosevelt knew virtually the assault on Pearl Harbor inward advance. The Gallup Organization reports that inward Dec 1941, 84 percent of Americans said the president had done “everything he should convey to forestall state of war alongside Japan,” alongside solely nine percent disagreeing.

Fifty years later, inward 1991, Gallup flora that nearly one-third of Americans (31 percent) agreed alongside the statement, “Roosevelt knew virtually Japanese plans to bomb Pearl Harbor only did null virtually it because he wanted an excuse to involve the U.S.A. on the side of the Allies inward the war,” alongside 47 percent disagreeing as well as 22 percent alongside no opinion. As an interesting side note, xix percent said they withal convey non forgiven the Japanese.

Moon Landings

The conspiracy theory that the moon landings were a mistaken is less popular. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Gallup Poll was conducted 13–14 July 1999 alongside telephone interviews of a randomly selected sample of 1,061 adults aged eighteen as well as older. The results are projectable to all U.S. households alongside a 95 percent confidence as well as a 3 percent margin of error. When asked, “Thinking virtually the infinite exploration, arrive at you lot retrieve the authorities staged or faked the Apollo Luna landing, or don’t you lot experience that way?”—with answers being, “Yes, staged,” “No,” as well as “No opinion”:

Less than i inward 10 (6 percent) believes that the landing was faked piece nearly nine inward 10 (89 percent) arrive at non believe that the lunar landing was faked or staged.

Time/CNN/Yakelovich Partners, Inc., conducted a similar poll 19–20 July 1995, alongside virtually identical wording, as well as produced similar results:

Less than i inward 10 (6 percent) believes that the landing was faked piece to a greater extent than than four-fifths (83 percent) arrive at non believe that the lunar landing was faked or staged.

UFOs

Many Americans say that the authorities is hiding data virtually UFOs. In the 1997 survey conducted past times Guido H. Stempel III of the EW Scripps School of Journalism at Ohio University as well as Thomas Hargrove of the Scripps Howard News Service mentioned above, nearly one-half of Americans (47 percent) indicated that it is rattling probable or somewhat probable that “The U.S. Air Force is withholding proof of the existence of intelligent life from other planets.”

Another study, sponsored past times the SCI FI Channel as well as conducted 23–25 August past times RoperASW, flora that 72 percent of Americans believe the “government is non telling the populace everything it knows virtually UFO activity,” as well as 68 percent believe the “government knows to a greater extent than virtually extraterrestrial life” than it says. The study was conducted amid a instance lawsuit of 1,021 adults aged eighteen as well as over, alongside a margin of error of +3 percent.

Further, lx percent of respondents inward the RoperASW poll said the authorities “should non withhold data virtually UFO sightings,” piece 58 percent said the authorities shouldn’t conceal data virtually “potential encounters alongside extraterrestrial life.”

Trust inward Government

The higher upward RoperASW study also discussed the number of trust inward government. The same poll flora that virtually one-half of Americans (53 percent) say their “level of trust inward the authorities has remained stable over the past times 5 years,” piece 29 percent say they trust the authorities “less than they did 5 years ago.” More than one-half of Americans (55 percent) said the authorities “does non portion plenty data alongside the populace inward general.”

After the Oklahoma City bombing, a poll was conducted past times the Gallup organization that flora that 39 percent of Americans believed that the federal authorities had function also powerful as well as large as well as so was a threat to the freedoms as well as rights of average citizens.

In 2000, this number increased to 45 percent, alongside 51 percent disagreeing that the federal authorities poses such a threat. The 2000 study was conducted 7–9 Apr 2000 amid a randomly selected national sample of 1,006 adults aged eighteen as well as over, alongside a margin of error of +3 percent.

Organization of American States (OAS)

The Organization of American States (OAS) was founded on April 30, 1948, in Bogotá, Colombia, by 21 member states. Successor organization to the Pan American Union (1889–1947) and retooled to correspond to the changed security environment of the post–World War II era, the OAS was founded as a regional agency of the United Nations.

Its purposes, according to its official charter, are "to strengthen the peace and security of the continent; to promote and consolidate representative democracy, with due respect for the principle of non-intervention; to seek the solution of political, juridical, and economic problems... ; [and] to eradicate extreme poverty", among others. Headquartered in Washington, D.C., since its founding, in 2007 the OAS counted 35 member states, with Cuba suspended from participation since 1962, making 34 active member states.

Mirroring the organizational structures of the United Nations, the OAS is governed by a General Assembly and Permanent Council and led by a secretary-general elected every five years.

It has numerous affiliated organizations, organs, and entities, including the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR, f. 1959); the Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission (CICAD, f. 1968); Inter-American Committee Against Terrorism (CICTE, f. 1999); and many others.


Four "Protocols" introduced major revisions to the original OAS Bogotá Charter: the Protocols of Buenos Aires (1967), Cartagena de Indias (1985), Washington (1992), and Managua (1993). In 1994 the OAS organized the first Summit of the Americas, an event henceforth held every few years.

Since its founding, the OAS has been dominated by the United States. During the the cold war era, its overriding concern was limiting Soviet and communist influence in the Western Hemisphere.

Because Marxist, communist, and socialist doctrines proved popular in many parts of Latin America in the postwar era, OAS member states could pursue one of three options: openly defy the United States and adopt a socialist or Marxist-oriented government; ally with the United States in its anticommunist policies; or pursue a "third way" by aligning with neither the Soviet nor the U.S. bloc.

In a handful of instances, OAS member states openly defied the United States, such as in Guatemala (1944–54), Bolivia (1952–64), Cuba (1961– ), Chile (1970–73), Nicaragua (1979–90), Grenada (1983), Panama (1989), and Venezuela (1999– ).

In these and other cases, the United States violated the OAS charter regarding nonintervention, which stipulated that "No State or group of States has the right to intervene, directly or indirectly, for any reason whatever, in the internal or external affairs of any other State" (Chapter IV, Article 19). More often, OAS member states cooperated with U.S. anticommunist efforts or sought to pursue a nonaligned stance in international affairs.

The United States most commonly interpreted the latter as alignment with international communism and therefore a direct threat to its national security. In the post–cold war era, the OAS has exerted a greater degree of autonomy from U.S. domination.

Panama Canal

Panama Canal

The edifice of the Panama Canal linking the Atlantic to the Pacific was mired inwards international political in addition to fiscal skulduggery. More recently, amongst the transfer of U.S. command of transportation facilities at the entrances to the canal at the terminate of 1999, many on the conspiratorial Right warned that a long-standing Communist conspiracy to dominate the strategic passage had hold upwards come upwards to fruition.

Early Plans to Build a Canal

The see of edifice an isthmian passage linking the Pacific in addition to the Atlantic coasts dates dorsum to the fourth dimension of the conquistadores, exactly the number was slow narrowed downwardly to a rivalry betwixt the USA in addition to Great Britain. In the Clayton-Bulwer treaty of 1850, both U.K. in addition to the USA pledged to collaborate on the edifice of the time to come passage on a nonfortification in addition to nonexclusive basis.

However, this understanding solely settled the number on the surface. In the next years, both governments contrived to obtain exclusive rights from the states of Central America, peculiarly those which were considered the ideal place for the time to come canal in addition to vital to its security.


The USA obtained a treaty amongst New Granada (later Colombia) inwards 1846 guaranteeing the “perfect neutrality” of the Isthmus of Panama. The Panama railroad was completed past times the USA inwards 1855. Nicaragua too signed a treaty inwards 1867 granting privileges, exactly these were non exclusive.

The number came dorsum to the fore when it was announced that the French Panama Canal Company, nether Ferdinand de Lesseps, the famous builder of the Suez Canal (1869), had undertaken to gain a canal inwards Panama (excavations had fifty-fifty started inwards 1883 exactly were after abandoned).

There remained the diplomatic obstruction of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty exactly it was modified inwards the 2d Hay-Pauncefote treaty of eighteen Nov 1901, which gave the USA the exclusive correct to gain in addition to fortify a canal, provided its utilization was accorded to all nations on equal damage (the initiatory of all treaty, signed on five Feb 1900, had been rejected inwards March 1901).

U.S. Involvement

Once this obstruction was removed, a pick had to live made betwixt the Nicaragua route in addition to the Isthmus of Panama (a province of Colombia) route. Meanwhile the French Panama Canal Company had ceded its assets to the New Panama Canal Company for $40 1000000 inwards 1901, which lobbied actively for the Panama route.

Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 treaty was signed amongst Colombia, the Hay-Herran treaty (22 Jan 1903), whereby they granted the USA a ninety-nine-year lease over a 6-mile-wide zone inwards the province of Panama, inwards render for $10 1000000 inwards cash in addition to an annual rental of $250,000 commencement nine years after the ratification of the treaty. The U.S. Senate ratified the treaty, exactly the Colombian Senate refused for nationalistic reasons (Colombia had lately gone through a civil war) in addition to too because they hoped to obtain meliorate terms.

The Colombians made a serial of miscalculations, past times misjudging U.S. President Roosevelt in addition to Secretary of State John Hay’s commitment to the canal, in addition to past times underestimating the New Panama Canal Company in addition to the separatist feelings of the inhabitants of the province, who saw their hopes of economical prosperity thwarted past times the fundamental authorities of Bogota, against whom they had ofttimes rebelled.

These revolutionaries were manipulated past times external forces—U.S. authorities in addition to person interests—including Philippe Bunau-Varilla, a lobbyist for the companionship who assured the revolutionaries of U.S. support, understanding that Roosevelt preferred that course of pedagogy to opened upwards the world grab.

Meanwhile, invoking an obscure treaty signed amongst Republic of Colombia inwards 1846, Bidlack’s treaty, past times which the USA was supposed to assistance keep “free in addition to uninterrupted transit” across the isthmus, the USA dispatched a fleet to Central America amongst limited orders to foreclose Republic of Colombia from landing troops on the isthmus if a revolution started. However, at the fourth dimension it was signed, this treaty was non meant to live used against Colombia, exactly rather to keep safety inwards the surface area if Republic of Colombia flora itself incapable of doing so.

The chronology of the revolution clearly points to active U.S. complicity in addition to a priori cognition of the events to come. So the revolutionaries, who sparked off their revolt on iii Nov 1903, were successful because of the presence of U.S. troops. Roosevelt’s operate inwards this thing was extremely important, since he recognized the novel democracy inside seventy-six minutes.

Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 2001 mass past times Oviodio Diaz claims that a cabal of Wall Street interests led past times the lawyer William Nelson Cromwell in addition to the banker J. P Morgan worked behind the scenes, initiatory of all to purchase upwards the shares of the French Panama Canal Company (for solely $3.5 million), 2d to persuade Congress to shift the route from Nicaragua to Panama, in addition to thus to reap the turn a profit when the U.S. authorities backed the New Panama Canal Company. It is too alleged that inwards guild to succeed inwards making Panama the preferred route, Cromwell helped maneuver Panama into seceding from Colombia.

What is certain, however, is that Bunau-Varilla, the newly appointed unusual government minister of the independent Republic of Panama, negotiated a to a greater extent than favorable treaty, the Hay-Bunau-Varilla treaty, 2 weeks after the revolution, on eighteen Nov 1903.

It granted to the USA inwards perpetuity the utilization of a canal zone 10 miles wide, in addition to transferred to the USA authorities the properties of the New Panama Canal Company in addition to the Panama Railroad Company.

In exchange, Panama was awarded $10 1000000 in addition to an annuity of $250,000 for its concessions. When the canal was completed inwards 1904, the canal zone had dice an “unorganized possession,” amongst a authorities fixed past times executive guild in addition to run past times U.S. naval officers serving every bit appointed governors, spell the balance of Panama was a de facto protectorate.

International Communist Conspiracy

With the transfer of U.S. command of the port facilities at either entrance to the canal inwards Dec 1999 to a companionship called Hutchison Whampoa, right-wing groups such every bit the John Birch Society warned that what they term the International Communist Conspiracy had hold upwards succeeded inwards its mission of gaining command of such strategic routes.

The declaration was that Hutchison, a Hong Kong–based company, was inwards fact controlled past times the Communist Chinese. The John Birch Society in addition to other groups warned that this was the latest inwards a long serial of attempts past times the Communists to gain command of the zone.

These include the long history of Communist agitation inwards the region, in addition to the effort past times Alger Hiss, the one-time the world division official who was convicted inwards the anticommunist trials inwards the belatedly 1940s in addition to early on 1950s, to involvement the United Nations inwards taking over the zone every bit a protectorate inwards the aftermath of World War II.

Olympics

One of the goals of Baron Pierre de Coubertin—founder of the modern Olympic Games and organizer of the first modern games in 1896—was to encourage international understanding through sports, and help to create a more peaceful world.

But after 50 years and two world wars—the bloodiest and most violent wars the world had yet seen—the Olympic dream of de Coubertin seemed very distant indeed. Too often the competition between nations would overshadow the competition of the athletes, and occasionally even the athletes themselves would be the center of controversy.

In fact the Olympic Games found themselves, in 1948, in the middle of the geopolitics of the cold war. The world found itself poised on the brink of nuclear confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union, and it seemed the world needed the Olympic Games and de Coubertin’s vision of peace now more than ever. Often, however, the Games would be just another proxy in the ideological battle between liberal democracy and communism.


One of the most famous incidents of the 1956 Melbourne Games was the water polo match between the Soviet Union and Hungary. This match followed the Soviet quashing of the Hungarian uprising; because of political tension between the countries, the match was contested with such intensity that blood was seen in the swimming pool.

But in addition to political theater, the games also provided many moments of genuine human drama, where athletes strove to best one another under daunting pressure, after years of sacrifice and training.

For the 1960 Summer Games, held at Rome, the games were broadcast live on television throughout Europe. Highlights of the games were Cassius Clay’s (Muhammad Ali) gold medal in boxing, and Abebe Bikila’s barefoot gold medal–winning performance in the marathon.

The 1968 Winter Olympics were held at Grenoble, France, with many events spread around the region. The French skier Jean-Claude Killy, aged 24, won all three Alpine skiing gold medals. The 1968 Summer Games were held at Mexico City; the high altitude brought athletes in as much as a month early to acclimitize.

Bob Beamon broke the world long jump record at the games; his record stood until 1991. The 1972 Summer Olympics were held at Munich, Germany, where U.S. swimmer Mark Spitz won seven gold medals and the Soviet Union’s gymnast Olga Korbut won three gold medals.

These games also featured the controversial results of men’s basketball in which the American team believed that it had been cheated out of the gold medal. The games are best remembered, however, for the attack by Palestinian terrorists on the Israeli team, which resulted in the death of 17 people.

At the 1976 Olympics held at Montreal, Canada, extra security was introduced. These games featured a boycott by African nations that protested the presence of New Zealand. The cause was a match between a New Zealand rugby team and a team from South Africa. This was in violation of a Commonwealth boycott of South Africa.

The major stories of the games were Lase Viren winning both the 5,000 m and the 10,000 m again, and the Romanian gymnast Nadia Comaneci, aged 14, winning gold medals with the first-ever perfect score in Olympic gymnastic competition.

At the 1980 Lake Placid Winter Olympics, artificial snow was used, and the U.S. speed skater Eric Heiden won five gold medals. This also marked the presence of the first Chinese Olympic team since 1948 (prior to the Communists taking over).

For the United States, these games will always be remembered for the "Miracle on Ice", the victory of the American ice hockey team over the superior Soviet squad; for many, the American victory was seen as a win over communism.

The 1980 Summer Games were held at Moscow, USSR, with 100,000 people at the opening ceremony. However, the United States led a boycott over the Soviet Union’s invasion of Afghanistan in the previous year.

The games were best remembered for the rivalry between British runners Sebastian Coe and Steve Ovett; each won one gold medal. The 1984 Summer Games were held at Los Angeles. The Soviet Union and its close allies organized a boycott in retaliation for the U.S.-led one four years earlier.

The best-remembered events of these games included the 200 m record set by U.S. runner Carl Lewis, who also won the 100 m, the long jump and the sprint relay, matching the feats of Jesse Owens in 1936; and also another U.S. runner Mary Decker falling over in the women’s 3,000 m race and blaming the British/South African runner Zola Budd.

The Los Angeles Olympics was also the first summer games to which China sent a team since 1948. There was also some international concern over the high level of advertising and commercial endorsements during the games.

At the 1988 Summer Games held at Seoul, South Korea, there were no major boycotts or security problems in spite of worries about North Korea’s hostility to the games. In the track events, Florence Griffith-Joyner won three gold medals for sprinting, and Kristin Otto of East German won six gold medals.

The Seoul Olympic Games also saw Ben Johnson, a Canadian sprinter, winning the 100 m race in world record time only to be stripped of his gold medal three days later after he failed a drug test.

The 1992 Summer Olympic Games, held in Barcelona, Spain, saw the athletes of the former Soviet Union contesting as a single team for the last time, the return of South Africa, and also a team sent by the reunited Germany. In 1994 the Olympic Winter Games were held, this time at Lillehammer, Norway, beginning a different timetable for the Winter Olympics.

At the Atlanta Summer Olympics in 1996, the centenary games, a bomb killed two people in the Centennial Olympic Park, but fears of international terrorists proved unfounded with a local man arrested for the bombing. At the Nagano Winter Olympics held in 1998, curling, women’s ice hockey, and snow boarding were all introduced as new Olympic sports.

The Sydney Olympic Games in 2000 saw the summer games return to the Southern Hemisphere for the first time since 1956. The new events introduced included the triathlon and tae kwon do. The public cheered the presence of the team from East Timor at the Opening Ceremony, and also the North Korean and South Korean athletes who marched together.

The highlight was Australian Aboriginal runner Cathy Freeman winning the women’s 100 m race in front of a home crowd. It saw the U.S. team win 40 gold medals, 24 silver medals, and 33 bronze medals; Australia’s team won 16 gold medals, 25 silver medals, and 17 bronze medals.

The 2002 Winter Olympic Games were held at Salt Lake City, Utah. The choice of Salt Lake City saw accusations of corruption and bribery that had first occurred following Atlanta being awarded the Olympics in 1989.

A number of members of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) were found to have received bribes in exchange for their votes, with files held in Salt Lake City revealing demands for and expectations of bribes by IOC delegates being made public.

In a similar story, during the pairs figure skating competition, a judge was accused of collusion in awarding the gold medal to the Russian pair over the Canadian skaters; the situation was resolved when both figure skating pairs were awarded the gold.

In 2004 the Summer Olympic Games were held at Athens, Greece, the site of the first of the modern Olympic Games held in 1896. These games witnessed several scandals, the majority of them involving performance enhancing drugs. At least 20 violations were noted, the most of any Olympic Games.

The issue of athletes taking drugs to gain an edge over rivals has become one of the dominant concerns of the games in the 21st century. In addition, the International Olympic Committee must also deal with the issue of letting professional athletes into a competition that was originally designed just for amateurs.

Some critics contend that allowing professional athletes will give developed nations an unfair advantage over underdeveloped nations, while others contend that the records set at the Olympics will mean little unless the best athletes are allowed to compete. Despite these challenges—and the ever-present fear of terrorist attacks—the Athens Games saw a record 202 nations participate with over 11,000 athletes.

The Olympic Games have proved to be a tempting avenue for nations to express a political point of view, or in more drastic fashion, commit violence in the name of one cause or another.

Despite the intrusion of politics, it is perhaps a testament to de Coubertin’s dream that athletes the world over still strive together in peaceful competition along the ideals expressed in the Olympic motto: Citius, Altius, Fortius (Faster, Higher, Stronger).