Taj Mahal

Taj Mahal

There are very few buildings in the world more famous than the Taj Mahal, a queen’s mausoleum in Agra, India. The sense of romance that the Taj Mahal invokes was developed as a result of British fascination with this structure during the late 18th century and has continued into the 21st century.

This monument was built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan after his favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal, died while giving birth in 1631. Shah Jahan was deeply affected by her passing, and her body was carried from Burhanpur to Agra to be entombed until the completion of the Taj Mahal.


In 1631, Shah Jahan began the construction of the Taj Mahal. Despite the fact that a massive labor force was involved in its construction, it took approximately 17 years to complete the main structure. A small village of artisans was created near the site in order to accommodate their immediate needs. In fact, many of the materials used for the construction of the Taj Mahal originated from China, Egypt, and Tibet, and a large number of people were involved, including Europeans.

The layout of the Taj Mahal has symbolic meaning; its main gate symbolizes a barrier between the outside world and the purity and serenity of the inside world. It is constructed of white marble, the color of purity. The use of water in the garden also symbolizes purity, emphasizing the belief that the Taj Mahal is a holy site. As one enters the heart of the mausoleum, Islamic prayers can be read above the doorway, which are recited before a person of the Islamic faith dies.

Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal

It has been rumored that Shah Jahan wanted to construct a black marble mausoleum for himself beside his wife’s. But his son and successor, Aurangzeb, did not fulfill his wishes, and he was buried in a separate crypt beside his wife. The architecture and decorating of the Taj Mahal epitomized the highest achievement of the Indo-Islamic artistic style.

Sikhism and Guru Nanak

Guru Nanak

Sri Guru Nanak Dev, founder of Sikhism, was born in 1469 in Sheikhupura district of present-day Pakistan to a Hindu family of Kshatriya caste. He was educated in Sanskrit, Persian, and Arabic.

Although attracted to spiritualism, he did not adhere to religious conventions and refused putting on sacred thread according to the traditional Hindu custom. In spite of his marriage and his father’s insistence that he pursue a career, the young man pursued his spiritual quest, spending hours in meditation and in religious discourse with Muslim and Hindu saints.

Nanak donated all his belongings to the poor, renounced the world, and made an extensive tour of the Indian subcontinent and according to the tradition went even to Mecca, Medina, Tibet, and Sri Lanka. During his travels to places of worship of both Hindus and Muslims, Nanak developed his religious thought and monotheism, belief in one god, who was timeless and everlasting.


Like the Bhakit saints of India, he visualized an egalitarian society without any discrimination between different classes and religion. He was against all forms of rituals and proclaimed that there was neither Hindu nor Muslim, emphasizing brotherhood and peaceful coexistence between the followers of the two religions.

Nanak’s message against caste distinctions, ritualism, superstition, and idol worship attracted adherents and he mixed freely with low-class people during his travels. He distributed money among the poor and maintained a common kitchen where all could dine together.

Nanak identified himself with the downtrodden and declared that he was the lowliest of the low. He held woman in high esteem and once exclaimed, “Why denounce her from [of] whom even kings and great men are born?” Nanak advocated an honest livelihood, life of purity, and shared earnings.

He believed in rebirths and taught that good deeds and chanting God’s name could end the cycle of rebirths. Finally he settled as a farmer in a place called Dera Baba Nank in Punjab, attracting large number of disciples with his simple and universal message.

The followers of Nanak were called Sikhs (disciples) and he was their guru, the first of nine gurus. The second guru was his son Guru Angad (1504–52). The three essential elements in Nanak’s teaching were Nam Simran (thought about God), Kirt Kaara (living a normal life), and Wand Chhako (sharing with needy).

In time, guru, shabad (ideology), and sangat (organization) also became important. Sikhism emphasized the necessity of family life and all gurus, except for the eighth, were married, leading normal family lives. Work was emphasized and the gurus earned their livelihoods in different vocations. There was no place for ascetics in Sikhism.

The Adi Granth that forms the basis of Sikh theology is the record of Nanak’s teaching and the holy book of Sikhism. It was transcribed by Bhai Gurudasin in the 16th century in Punjab, a vernacular language of northern India.

The Sikh way of life became popular among many people, and Sikhism was a dynamic and growing religion. The third Mughal emperor, Akbar, gave a grant of land to the Sikhs as a sign of approval. The fifth guru, Arjan Dev (1563–1606), who had compiled the Granth Sahib, built Amritsar as a holy city for all Sikhs and laid the foundation of Harmindar Sahib (the Golden Temple).

The martyrdom of the Sikh leader during the revolt of Emperor Jahanair transformed Sikhism into a militant religion and long conflict with imperial power began. The militarization of the Sikh community became marked under fifth guru, Hargovind (1595–1644), at the time of Shah Jahan (1592–1666).

Sikhs rose up against the Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb (1618–1707), who executed Guru Tegh Bahadur (the ninth guru). His son Govind Singh (1666–1708) then fought against Aurangzeb by founding a military brotherhood called Khalsa (pure). Govind Singh was the last guru. As the Mughal Empire disintegrated, the Sikhs established a state and strove for regional independence.

Shivaji - Indian Leader

Shivaji Maharaj

Shivaji was born on February 19, 1627, in the hill fort of Shivaneri. He is best remembered for his valor and relentless struggle against the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb (1618–1707).

The father of Shivaji was Shahji, a jagirdar (fief holder) of the sultan of Bijapur. Jijabai, his mother, inspired Shivaji by telling stories of heroes from Hindu mythologies. She inculcated a spirit of bravery and self-determination in him.

Shahji sent his son to manage his land tenures around Pune region, and Dadaji Kondadeb was in charge of teaching young Shivaji the art of administration and warfare. Shivaji’s personality grew among the rugged mountains in the Pune region as he matured with the care of his mother, his apprenticeship under Dadaji, and an indomitable spirit of independence.


First Military Successes

Shivaji’s first military endeavor occurred at the age of 16, when he seized the fort of Torana. The following year two more forts, Kondana and Raigarh, were taken by his army. The conquest of Javli kingdom in 1656 made Shivaji dominant in Mavala region, and the path was open for further conquests in the Konkan area.

Shivaji also came into conflict with the Mughals when he made forays into Ahmadnagar, but he made peace with them in 1657. By 1659, he seized more forts along the Konkan coast and became master of Kalyan and Bhiwandi. The Bijapur sultan Adil Shah grew alarmed at Shivaji’s growing prowess.

The respite from the Mughals allowed the sultan to focus on Shivaji, so he sent General Afzal Khan with 10,000 troops to capture him. The two leaders agreed to meet each other unarmed, but before Afzal could take out his dagger, Shivaji finished him with a hidden iron finger grip containing tiger claws.

Afterward, the Bijapur army was routed, and Sivaji’s exploits made him a legendary figure. In 1660, Shivaji had to face the Mughal army of Deccan viceroy Shaista Khan, who was dispatched by Aurangzeb, anxious at the rapid rise of Shivaji. Pune and north Konkan came under Shaista Khan. Bijapur launched an attack under Sidi Salabat and took away Panhala.

An agreement was signed between Shivaji and the sultan of Bijapur in 1662, by which Shivaji agreed not to attack Bijapur in exchange for control over northwestern part of the kingdom. The following year, Shivaji made a daring attack on Shaista Khan’s camp at Pune and the latter fled in disgrace. The important Mughal port of Surat was attacked in 1664, and Shivaji returned with treasure worth a fortune.

Aurangzeb wanted to subdue Shivaji and sent his capable Hindu general Mirza Raja Jai Singh with an army of 12,000. Jai Singh made careful preparations to influence anti-Shivaji forces and then struck at the fort of Purandar, where Shivaji’s family was staying.

It was besieged and Shivaji had to sign the Treaty of Purandar in 1665 after lengthy negotiations. Shivaji retained 12 forts out of his 35 and agreed to remain loyal to Aurangzeb. Jai Singh’s plan for subduing Bijapur failed, and he persuaded Shivaji to meet the emperor in person at Agra.

He was put under house arrest but managed to escape. Another treaty was signed, but it did not stop the offensive of Shivaji against the Mughals, and in 1670 he launched another attack against their territories. Purandar and some other forts were recaptured by him. Surat was once again attacked.

Self-declared King

Shivaji coronation

On June 6, 1674, Shivaji declared himself as a sovereign king in a ceremony at Raigarh, in which he gave himself the title of Chhatrapati (sovereign king). He started the Raj Shaka (royal era) and issued shivarai hun (gold coin) on this occasion. An independent Maratha state became an accomplished fact in the face of the mighty Mughals and ever opposing hegemony of Bijapur kingdom.

The Marathas looked him as father of the nation and the rise of Maratha nationalism owes a great deal to Shivaji, who rose from a minor chieftain to king of an independent kingdom. At the time of the struggle for freedom against British colonial rule, he was taken as a symbol of nationalism in the nationalist historiography.

Shivaji did not make an jadwal of fighting for the Hindu cause against forces of Islam. He was a brave soldier who prized his independence. His waging of war against external domination was a yearning for freedom against subjugation.

After 1674, Shivaji launched a spate of offensives against Mughals in Berar and Khandesh. He besieged the forts at Vellore and Jinji. As a sovereign ruler, he signed a treaty with Golconda Sultanate. He also signed a friendship treaty with the Kutubshah of Golconda Sultanate.

Administration

Amid his conquests and relentless guerrilla warfare against enemies, Shivaji laid the foundation of a sound administrative system. The ashtapradhans (eight ministers) were ministers holding different portfolios.

The ieshwa was the most important one, having charge of finance and general administration. The sar-i-naubat was the commander in chief, and the majumdar was the accountant. The dabir looked after foreign powers and waqe navis managed the intelligence department.

The departments of justice and charity were entrusted with nyayadhish and panditrao. He was one of the few rulers who had a developed navy, and he enacted improvements to the organization and functioning of the army. The soldiers were given strict instructions for not harassing women and noncombatants.

Salary was given in cash and the chiefs received land revenue grants. His numerous forts were well managed. A tax called chauth (one-fourth of land revenue) was levied in neighboring territories as a kind of protection money against Maratha raids. Shivaji adopted a policy of religious toleration and employed Muslims in the army.

His admirals in the navy were Muslims. Shivaji was one of the greatest statesmen and generals, symbolizing the Maratha will against the imperial rule of the Mughals. He died on April 3, 1680, from high fever and was succeeded by his son, Raje Sambhaji (1657–89).

Shah Jahan - Mughal Emperor

Shah Jahan - Mughal Emperor

Mughal emperor Jahangir’s death and the following succession struggle ended in the triumph of his son, Prince Khurram, who took the title Shah Jahan, which means “emperor of the world.”

He killed his male relatives and forced Jahangir’s powerful widow, Nur Jahan, to retire. He is best remembered for building the Taj Mahal, a mausoleum for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. He was the fifth ruler of the Mughal (Mogul, Moghul) Empire and his reign marked the zenith of Mughal power and splendor.

Anticipating his father’s death, the future Shah Jahan openly rebelled in 1623 and seized power upon Jahangir’s death in 1628, putting to death all his brothers and other possible rivals. Shah Jahan was a devout orthodox Muslim. Intolerant of other faiths, he ordered the destruction of new Hindu temples and Christian churches in 1632.


In the same year, he attacked the Portuguese settlements at Hoogley and Chittagong in Bengal. Both trading outposts were far from Goa, the Portuguese viceroy’s seat, and he could send no help. Portuguese prisoners were taken to Agra and kept until 1643, when they were repatriated to Goa.

Shan Jahan also campaigned against the Shi’i ruled Muslim states in the Deccan and subdued them to vassalage. However he had to give up Kandahar in Afghanistan to the Persians in 1653 because they possessed superior artillery and guns, and he also lost control of previous Mughal holdings in Central Asia.

Shah Jahan ruled the Mughal Empire at its height and was noted for the extravagance and opulence of his court. He was famous for the buildings he commissioned, most notably the Red Fort in Delhi with its mosque and sumptuous palaces, especially for the gem encrusted Peacock Throne.

Shah Jahan is accompanied by his three sons

Although he had a harem of 5,000 women, he was known for his devotion to his wife, Mumtaz Mahal, whose name means “light of the palace.” She died giving birth to the last of their 14 children. He expressed his grief for her by assembling 20,000 workers, who labored for 20 years to complete her mausoleum in Agra.

Designed by Persian architects it was a synthesis of Persian Muslim and Indian styles called Indo-Islamic and remains a wonder of the world. Most of his other monuments also remain. The demands of his campaigns and projects resulted in huge tax increases that weakened the economy.

As Shah Jahan aged, his adult sons began to conspire for the throne. He kept his eldest and favorite son, Dara Shikuh, in Agra so he could begin acquiring military and administrative experience. Fearing that he was near death, his remaining three ambitious sons revolted in 1657.

They fought with one another, against their father, and against their oldest brother. Aurangzeb, the third and most ruthless, was the victor. He killed his brothers and imprisoned his aged father in an apartment in Agra fort with a view of the Taj Mahal until his death in 1666. Meanwhile Aurangzeb proclaimed himself Emperor Alamgir in 1658.

Zen (Ch’an) Buddhism

Zen (Ch’an) Buddhism

Zen is a form of Buddhism that concentrates on calm, reflective forms of meditation in the quest for enlightenment. The word Zen, by which the school is known in Japan, derives from the Sanskrit word dhyana, which means “meditation.” Dhyana took root in China and was translated into the Chinese character ch’an.

Zen is the Japanese pronunciation of ch’an, while it is also known in Korean as Seon and in Vietnamese as Thien. The same basic principles and provenance of the school apply to each country where Zen Buddhism has come to be practiced, although it has developed slightly differently in each country over the years.

The essence of Zen Buddhism is that the capability to attain the Buddhahood—to recreate the enlightenment of Gautama Buddha—exists within all people but remains latent because of ignorance of its presence. It is, consequently, a branch of Mahayana Buddhism.

To liberate the potential for enlightenment, the best method is to penetrate mundane, rational thought to achieve a sudden transcendent understanding. Training in the way to achieve this should be transmitted from a Zen master to a student individually and is known as satori.


All other activities, such as studying scriptures, proper behavior, and charitable works, prescribed by different schools of Buddhist thought are held to be less valuable approaches to enlightenment and may in fact be worthless.

The originator of Zen Buddhism is believed to be the Indian monk Bodhidharma, who resided in China in the sixth century. Bodhidharma is said to be the 28th patriarch of the Indian meditation school that was founded by the monk Kasyapa, to whom the lord Buddha revealed his enlightened nature directly. Bodhidharma continued the practice of passing authority over the school through subsequent patriarchs, the first of whom was Hui-ko.

By the end of the reign of the fifth patriarch, the school began to suffer from schisms and it was a branch of the so-called Southern school that took root in Japan. This featured students’ concentrating on koan (or kung-an in Chinese), which are apparently contradictory aphorisms, which, when resolved, can lead the mind to sudden enlightenment.

In some schools, the focus on koan was assisted by the Zen master’s slapping the face of the student or emitting unexpected shouts to help intensify the mind’s activity. Other schools favored the zazen method of sitting quietly.

Zen spread slowly from China and was established in Japan in the 12th century. Many of the warrior class practiced Zen and lent their support to its protection. The monk Dogen, who founded his own temple in Japan after having achieved enlightenment in China while in the zazen position, led further development.

Rajputs

Rajputs

Rajputs (literally, “children of kings”) are members of a Hindu aristocratic caste (kshatriya, or warrior) settled mainly in northwestern India, who may have Central Asian origins. The Rajputs have been influential in the political history of India since the eighth century.

By late 15th century, they were engaged in battles against the Turko-Afghans of the Delhi Sultanate, and by the mid-16th century they came under control of the Mughals (Moguls, Moghuls).

In 1527, Babur won the Battle of Kanua over a confederacy of Rajputs led by Rana Sanga, ruler of Mewar in Rajastan, despite having a much smaller army. With the death of Rana Sanga and many other leaders in this battle, there was little hope for Rajput resurgence.


The Battle of Kanua inaugurated a long relationship between Rajputs and Mughals. Babur ruled for four years and died in 1530. His son Humayun was not as powerful a leader and was forced into exile in Persia. However, Humayun’s son Akbar extended power and geographical dominance of the Mughal Empire.

Akbar began the custom of taking Rajput Hindu wives, without expecting them to convert to Islam. The diverse Mughal dynasty would employ Persians, Arabs, locally born Muslims, Rajputs, Brahmans, and later Marathas in its administration.

Akbar and subsequent leaders’ marriages to Rajput women positioned some Rajputs as members of the ruling Mughal elite and they were integrated into the Mughal Empire in northern India. Many regional Rajput leaders maintained their autonomy but had to pay taxes to the Mughal government.

The reciprocal relationship between the Mughal emperors and the Rajputs was threatened in the mid-17th century, as a result of Shah Jahan’s four sons’ wars of succession of their father. The Rajputs remained loyal to Shah Jahan and fought against his rebel sons. When Aurangzeb won, they would suffer the consequences.

Aurangzeb was an ardent Muslim and he recast the previously diverse administration to favor Muslims exclusively. As a result, the Hindu Rajputs were ostracized politically, economically, and socially.

A later ruler, Jahandar Shah, attempted to repair relations with the Rajputs after 1715. The once strong relationship between the Rajputs and Mughals was never revived to the same level as during the early years of the Mughal dynasty.

Vijayanagara Empire

Vijayanagara Map

The Vijayanagara Empire flourished in southern India from 1336 to 1565. It was a Hindu kingdom that left as its legacy a number of small, independent states that survived until colonial times. The city of Vijayanagara (or Vijayanagar), which means “City of Victory,” is located in modern day Karnataka.

The brothers Harihara and Bukka founded the Vijayanagara state at a time when Muslim rulers were striving to enforce their will and control on Indian people attached to their own religious beliefs and cultural loyalties.

The Deccan Muslim states to the north made various attempts to expand their territories to Vijayanagara to the south. The two brothers were originally Muslims and had served in the administrations of Islamic states.


However when their early military campaigns failed, they changed their religion to Hinduism to achieve greater levels of support from the people they ruled. In 1565 an enemy alliance defeated the Vijayanagaran army and occupied and largely destroyed the city, which has never been fully rebuilt. The state persisted in some of its outlying regions for another century.

The city of Vijayanagara contains elements from various religious traditions. Its earliest deity protectress was Pampa, who was integrated into the Hindu pantheon through her marriage to Virupaksha, a form of Shiva. Other religious elements accumulated over the years.

Vijayanagara ruin

The cave home of the monkey king of the Ramayana is rumored to exist within the city limits. Jainist and Islamic cultural elements were also introduced through the proximity of believers trading with neighboring states.

The people of southern India were divided into numerous caste and occupation groups, which also depended on where they lived. Consequently it required considerable efforts for rulers to be able to demonstrate legitimacy to rule and also maintain a pluralist polity that would not be too divisive to maintain.

Through the seaports of Calcutta and Basrur, Vijayanagara came into contact with numerous international states and their influences were also represented in southern India and contributed to the quality of life through provision of consumer products and intellectual property.

Vittala Temple

Tughlaq Dynasty

Ruin of Tughlaq Fort

The Tughlaq dynasty was one of the dynasties ruling India collectively referred to as the Delhi Sultanate. Most historians mark the years of Tughlaq dynasty from 1321 to 1414. The Tughluq family was a Muslim clan that originated in Turkey. A number of alliances with Turks, Afghans, and other Asian Muslims characterized most of the Tughluq rule.

In 1320 the last ruler of the Khilji dynasty, Nasir-ud-Din Khusro, confronted the governor of Punjab, Ghazi Malik, in a battle near Delhi. Khusro, a Hindu who had converted to Islam, began a purge of Muslim military officers while appointing Hindus in their place.

This created a great deal of unrest throughout India. Ghazi Malik and his forces were victorious in the battle and he proclaimed himself king of Delhi. Malik followed with an attempt to locate a rightful successor to the Khalji dynasty.


A successor could not be found and sentiment grew for Malik to follow Khusro. Soon after, Ghazi Malik changed his name to Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq. Ghazi Malik’s ascension to power was the beginning of the Tughlaq dynasty.

Upon taking power, Tughluq commenced a policy of exterminating the former allies of Khusro. In addition, Tughluq introduced a series of administrative reforms in order to restore order throughout the kingdom.

In 1325 Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq viewed a parade of elephants captured during the conquest of Bengal while sitting in a specially constructed pavilion. The elephants caused the viewing pavilion to collapse, causing the death of both Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq and his son, Prince Mahmud Khan.

Ghiyasud-Din-Tughlaq's Tomb

Some experts suggest that the incident was not an accident, but a plot to end Ghiyas-ud-Din’s regime. Another son of Ghiyas-ud-Din, Muhammad bin Tughluq, followed as ruler. Muhammad introduced a number of experimental reforms.

Most notably Muhammad transferred the capital and all government officials, army, servants, and a number of citizens from Delhi to Daulatbad. In addition Muhammad allowed the production of copper coinage, which, ultimately, led to severe devaluation of local currencies.

Muhammad bin Tughluq’s reign included a number of internal revolts as well as incursions from Mongol invaders. The most significant development during Muhammad’s rule was the 1328 invasion by Mongols. In 1350 Muhammad died and was followed by his cousin Firuz Tughlaq.

Firuz Tughlaq assumed the role of sultan in 1351. Militarily, his reign resulted in a loss of territory while his financial policies brought economic successes. Firuz supported a number of improvements in the infrastructure—including irrigation and construction projects. In 1351 the Hindu region of the south regained its independence.

Upon Firuz’s death, the Tughlaq dynasty began to disintegrate even more. Ghias-ud-din Tughlaq II reigned from 1388 until his murder in 1389 and was followed by Abu Baker. Abu Baker fell to the youngest son of Firuz Tughlaq, Naser-ud-din Muhammad, who ruled from 1390 to 1394. Humayun followed for one year.

In 1395 the last of the Tughlaq dynasty, Mahmud Nasir-ud-din, grabbed power until 1413. Timurlane’s (Tamurlane’s) invasion of the subcontinent from Central Asia ultimately brought a simpulan chapter to the Tughlaq monarchy, which had been slowly disintegrating from within.

Tamil Culture

Tamil Culture

Tamil is a Dravidian language group that originated in southern India and is not linked to the northern Aryan language group. Tamil speakers are found in Tamilnadu, the region surrounded by Kerela, Karnataka, and Pradesh and parts of present-day Sri Lanka. Historically, the two largest and most influential Tamil cities were Madras and Madura.

Intense trade and military expansion resulted in Tamil cultural expansion from the second century to the 10th century. At the core of Tamil cultural identity is the Tamil language. As early as the end of the third century, Tamil script and Tamil as a distinct Dravidian language are documented.

Thus literature and poetry are at the core of culture in this period. However religion, another important aspect of Tamil culture, informed art in the form of painting, sculpture, and architecture.


The fourth century began after the end of the classical period in Tamil literature and was also the beginning of the rule of Pallavas, which would dominate until the 10th century. While this dynasty is not of Tamil origin, the integration of this dynasty into Tamil society transformed the cultural identity.

Pallavas encouraged the worship of Shiva and Vishnu and built lavish temples to honor them. They modeled their society after the great Aryan northern dynasties, the Mauras and Guptas. The Pallava kingdom marked the beginning of the Bakthi poetry movement.

The greatest collection of religious poetry that is indicative of this movement is the Thirumurai, which includes hymns of Appar, Sampanthar, Suntharar, and Manikkavasagar’s mystical poem Thiruvacagam.

The Chola kingdom (c.985–1300) began with ascension of Raja Raja I (985–1014) and the installation of his son Rajendra I. Their power and the crystallization of Tamil cultural identity provided a rich environment to facilitate cultural output. The Cholas were able to conquer vast amounts of territory as far as Malaysia.

As they conquered these lands they erected glorious temples and statues including bronzes of the dancing Lord Natarajan. By the 10th century the Cholas had a well-established trade relationship with China, which aided in enriching cultural connections.

Tamil statue

Under the Cholas, epic poetry was written by three great poets: Kampan, Ottakkootar, and Pukalenthi. The masterpiece of Tamil literature from this period was poetry created from stories written by Kamban.

Ramayanam (epics) were told in temples and were a part of worship. These were episodic public works performed in the temple, and in many ways were a reaction to the Bakthi movement.

Avvaiyar was a popular Tamil female poet, whose canon of expansive work spanned many topics, including spirituality and wisdom, which was largely popular among the people.

By the 13th century the Pandyas grew in political importance and displaced the Cholas as the dominant power. The Pandyas were highly proficient in trade and education. They controlled the pearl fisheries between the southeastern India coast and Sri Lanka, which produced the finest quality of pearls.

The Pandyas kings were known as far as Syria. The Nayaka period (c. 1336) was the instillation of the Nayaks of the Vijayanagara empire after the gradual spread of Muslim political authority in South Asia beginning in 711 with the Arabs and later, Turko-Afghans and Persians.

The decline of Tamil literature ends with the Nayaka Viceroy period under the hegemony of Sanskrit and Tugulu languages. However there was resurgence in Tamil literature in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Tamil culture from the seventh century until the mid-15th century was influenced heavily by religious devotion in the form of art, architecture, and sculpture. It was also in this period that Tamil literature underwent many transformations. This period provided the foundation for later articulations of Tamil identity.